t*  /•'  ••• 


James  M.  Goode 


Washington,  D.C. 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/pennsylvaniaschoOOpenn 


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tttittgtaw  §t()flol  ^rcbitccture. 


A  MANUAL 

OF 

DIRECTIONS  AND  PLANS 

FOR 


GRADING,  LOCATING,  CONSTRUCTING,  HEATING, 
VENTILATING  AND  FURNISHING 


COMMON  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 

THOMAS  H.  BURROWES,  Editor. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY. 


HARRISBURG : 

PRINTED  BY  A.  BOYD  HAMILTON. 


1855. 


Entered,  according  to  an  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-six,  by 
THOMAS  H.  BURROWES, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


PENNSYLVANIA  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


SECTION  XLV  OF  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL  LAW  OF  MAY  8,  1854, 

“  The  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  shall  be  authorized  to  employ 
“  a  competent  person  or  persons  to  submit  and  propose  Plans  and  Drawings 
“for  a  School  House  Architecture,  for  different  Grades  and  Classes  of 
“School  Buildings,  that  shall  be  adapted  for  furnishing  good  light  and 
“  healthful  ventilation ;  and  if  such  Plans  and  Drawings  are  approved  by 
“  the  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  he  is  hereby  directed  to  have 
“them  engraved  and  printed,  with  full  Specifications  and  Estimates  for 
“building  in  accordance  therewith;  and  shall  furnish  a  copy  of  the  same 
“  to  each  School  District,” 


. 


r7 


/ 


* 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


To  the  Hon.  Charles  A.  Black,  Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth 

and  Superintendent  of  the.  Common  Schools  of  Pennsylvania : 

Sir  During  the  conference  with  the  Architects  employed  to  prepare 
the  Plans  directed  by  the  preceding  section  of  the  Common  School  Law, 
which  took  place  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  on 
the  16th  instant,  and  at  which,  by  your  invitation,  I  was  present,  certain 
conclusions  were  arrived  at  on  the  subject,  which  I  now  beg  leave  to  reca¬ 
pitulate.  These  were : 

1.  That  neither  the  wants  of  the  Common  School  System,  nor  a  fair 
construction  of  the  Law,  would  be  satisfied  by  the  mere  publication  of  the 
“  Plans”  chen  selected  by  you,  accompanied  only  with  the  working  “  Speci¬ 
fications  and  Estimates,”  to  be  prepared  by  the  Architects  ;  but  that  a  full 
and  methodical,  though  brief  Treatise,  on  the  Grading  and  Location,  the 
Lighting,  Heating  and  Ventilation,  and  on  the  Furniture  and  Apparatus  of 
School  Houses,  was  also  requisite. 

2.  That  this  Treatise,  with  the  Plans,  Specifications  and  Estimates, 
should  take  the  form  of  a  volume  of  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  three 
hundred  and  fifty  pages,  with  handsome  Illustrations,  well  printed,  on  good 
Paper,  and  neatly  and  durably  bound. 

3.  That  the  Plans  and  Drawings  should  be  prepared  by  Messrs.  Sloan  & 
Stewart,  Architects,  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  from  whose  collections  of 
Drawings  you  then  selected  a  set  for  the  work ;  and  that  they  were  to 
have  them  properly  Engraved,  and  also  to  furnish  the  <{  full  Specifications 
and  Estimates  for  Building.” 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


4.  That  the  Treatise  and  Letter  Press  descriptions  should  be  prepared 
by  the  undersigned,  who  was  also  to  superintend  the  passage  of  the  work 
through  the  press  of  the  State  Printer  ; — the  whole  to  be  ready,  if  possible, 
for  delivery  to  the  Districts  by  the  first  of  May,  1855. 

This  work,  if  properly  executed,  will  mark  a  new  era,  not  merely  in  our 
School  House  Architecture,  but  in  the  cultivation  of  the  taste  and  of  the 
tiner  feelings  of  our  youth.  It  will  also  very  materially  affect  so  much 
of  their  progress  in  learning  as  is  retarded  by  the  repulsiveness  of  the 
present  School  Buildings,  the  discomforts  of  their  Furniture,  and  the  inade- 
cpiacy  of  their  Apparatus.  Viewed  in  this  broad  light,  there  is  scarcely 
a  single  provision  of  the  Act  of  1854,  Avhose  proper  and  liberal  fulfilment 
will  accomplish  more  good  than  the  one  in  question. 

In  performance,  of  my  part  of  this  important  task,  it  is  proposed  that  the 
book  shall  consist  of  the  following  Divisions  or  Chapters  : — 

I.  On  the  general  principles  involved  in  the  Grading  of  Schools,  with 
suggestions  for  their  application. 

II.  On  the  selection  of  Sites  for  School  Houses  of  the  various  grades. 

III.  On  the  Size,  Form,  Material  and  Interior  arrangement  of  the 
various  grades  of  School  Houses  required  in  rural  Districts,  with  Drawings, 
Plans,  Specifications  and  Estimates  of  each  kind. 

IV.  The  same,  as  to  School  Houses  in  Villages  and  small  Towns,  whether 
separate  or  Union  Schools. 

V.  The  same,  as  to  School  Houses  in  larger  Towns  and  Cities,  both 
graded  and  union. 

VI.  On  Heating  School  Rooms  of  the  different  kinds,  with  plates  of 
Stoves,  Furnaces,  &c. 

VII.  On  Lighting  and  Ventilating  School  Rooms,  with  plates  and  de¬ 
scriptions  of  Ventilating  Apparatus. 

VIII.  On  School  Room  Furniture,  with  plates  and  directions  for  its 
construction  and  arrangement. 

IX.  On  School  Apparatus,  with  plates  and  directions. 

X.  On  the  Repairing,  Enlargement  and  Remodeling  of  old  School 
Houses. 

XI.  On  the  Size,  Enclosure  and  Improvement  of  School  Grounds. 

XII.  General  Index. 

These  chapters  will  average  about  twelve  pages  of  letter  press  description 
each ;  some  of  course  being  longer,  and  some  shorter.  It  is  understood 
that  the  Drawings,  Plans,  Specifications  and  Estimates,  to  be  furnished  by 
the  Architects,  will  occupy  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pages.  The  whole 
■work  will,  therefore,  make  about  three  hundred  pages. 

My  part  of  it  shall  be  completed  sometime  within  the  month  of  March ; 
but,  to  hasten  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  chapters  can  be  placed  in  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


/•A 

VII 


hands  of  the  Printer  as  they  are  written  ;  — the  first  in  a  few  days  after 
the  proofs  of  the  Wood  Cuts  shall  be  obtained  from  the  Architects. 

Should  you  approve  of  this  outline,  you  will  please  attach  your  certificate 
to  that  effect ;  in  which  case  this  document  can  be  prefixed  to  the  work, 
both  as  an  introduction  and  general  table  of  contents. 

With  great  respect, 

Your  Obedient  Servant, 

THO.  H.  BURROWES. 

Lancaster,  December  22,  1854. 


Harrisburg,  December  23,  1854. 

To  Thos.  H.  Burrowes,  Esq. : 

Dear  Sir  :  —  Your  communication  in  reference  to  the  proposed  Plans 
and  Drawings  for  School  Architecture,  authorized  by  the  recent  Act  of 
Assembly  to  be  prepared  by  the  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  has 
been  received  and  examined.  Your  statement  of  the  facts,  and  the  con¬ 
clusions  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Dieffenbach,  Deputy  Superintendent,  and  myself, 
at  the  interview  you  refer  to,  is  entirely  correct.  In  the  selection  of  the 
proper  Plans,  from  the  mass  submitted  to  the  examination  of  the  Depart- 
>  ment,  I  was  induced  to  call  to  my  aid  the  advice  and  assistance  of  some 
one  more  familiar  than  myself  with  the  subject  of  School  Architecture ; 
and  the  result  so  far  satisfies  me  of  the  propriety  of  this  course. 

The  plan  of  the  work,  as  proposed  by  you,  is,  I  believe,  well  considered 
and  admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  th#  law ;  and  I  very  cheerfully 
approve  of  the  same. 

Yours,  Very  Respectfully, 

C.  A.  BLACK, 

Superintendent  of  Common  Schools. 


viii 


INTRODUCTION. 


Harrisburg,  March  8,  1855, 

To  Thomas  H.  Burrowes,  Esq. : 

Dear  Sir  : — In  compliance  with  j’our  verbal  request,  I  have,  in  con¬ 
junction  with  Mr.  IIickok,  Deputy  Superintendent,  examined  your  proposed 
plan  for  the  execution  of  the  work  on  School  Architecture,  contracted  for 
with  my  immediate  predecessor,  under  the  Act  of  8th  May,  1854  ;  and 
from  its  judicious  arrangement  and  admirable  fitness  to  the  ends  sought  to 
he  accomplished,  I  cheerfully  add  an  official  certificate  of  the  high  estimate 
I  have  formed  of  its  intrinsic  merits,  and  peculiar  capabilities  for  perma¬ 
nent  usefulness. 

I  am,  with  great  respect, 

Your  Obedient  Servant, 

A.  G.  CURTIN, 

Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  and 

Superintendent  of  Common  Schools , 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


I.  ON  GRADING  SCHOOLS. 


THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  THE  GRADING  OF  SCHOOLS,  WITH  SOME  SUGGES¬ 
TIONS  FOR  THEIR  APPLICATION. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

It  scarcely  needs  to  be  stated  that  the  selection  of  a  suitable  site  for  a 
School  House  must  precede  the  erection  of  the  building.  Hence,  the  prin¬ 
ciples  involved  in  proper  location  are  to  be  considered,  before  the  form, 
size,  or  material  of  the  house  is  determined.  But  there  is  a  subject  pre¬ 
ceding,  both  in  time  and  importance,  even  those  of  location  and  construction, 
which  has  not  heretofore  received  due  attention  : — this  is  the  grade  or  kind 
of  School  to  be  established.  This  question  is,  first  of  all,  to  be  decided. 
For,  as  the  same  site  will  be  found  no  more  suitable  for  every  kind  of 
School,  than  the  same  place  for  all  branches  of  every  other  business ;  so, 
neither  will  the  same  size  or  form  be  proper  for  a  School  of  every  grade,  any 
more  than  it  would  for  the  carrying  on  of  every  branch  in  any  other  em¬ 
ployment.  The  gradation  of  Schools  and  the  location  of  School  Houses, 
therefore,  naturally  occupy  the  first  chapters  in  a  manual  of  this  kind. 

THE  GRADING  OF  SCHOOLS  LAWFUL. 

Schools  of  different  grades  are  not  only  in  existence,  or  in  progress  of 
establishment,  under  every  well  ordered  system  of  Education,  but  the  law 
of  this  State  evidently  intends  the  classification  of  the  Common  Schools, 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  youth  to  be  instructed  by  their  means.  The 
very  section  of  the  Common  School  Law  of  1854  under  which  thflPmanual 
has  been  prepared,  speaks  of  “  different  classes  and  grades  of  Schools 
the  sixth  paragraph  of  the  twenty-third  section  implies  that  the  same 
“  branches  of  learning”  shall  not  be  taught  in  every  School ;  the  ninth 
paragraph  of  the  same  section  expressly  confers  on  Directors  the  power  to 
2 


10 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


establish  “  Schools  of  different  grades  ;”  the  thirty-seventh  section  enjoins 
it  upon  the  proper  County  Superintendent  to  see,  “  that  each  School  shall 
he  equal  to  the  grade  for  which  it  was  established and  the  forty-first 
authorizes  the  same  officer  to  grant  to  Teachers,  “  Certificates”  of  qualifi¬ 
cation  for  other  branches  than  those  enumerated  in  the  thirty- eighth  section. 

The  lawfulness  of  Schools  of  various  grades  is  therefore  clear,  and  the 
duty  of  classification  obligatory,  whenever  the  circumstances  of  the  District 
admit  of  this  arrangement.  The  reason  and  necessity  for  carrying  this 
manifest  design  of  the  School  System  into  as  speedy  and  general  operation 
as  possible,  are  equally  evident  and  cogent. 

REASONS  FOE  GRADING  THE  SCHOOLS. 

The  whole  scope  of  the  Common  System  demands  the  gradation  of  the 
Schools.  Without  it  they  never  can  be  complete  or  fully  effective.  They 
have  succeeded  and  were  expressly  designated  to  supersede,  the  Pauper 
Schools.  But  if  the  Schools  of  the  Free  System  be  made  to  dole  out,  to  all 
who  enter  them,  only  the  same  scanty  degree  of  knowledge  which  was 
imparted  in  the  Pauper  Schools,  the  distinctive  badge  of  pauperism  will  be 
found  but  to  have  been  removed  from  the  persons  of  the  few  to  the  minds 
of  the  many.  “Poor”  Scholars  may  be  obliterated,  as  a  class,  from  society, 
but  poor  scholarship  will  be  rendered  general.  This  cannot  have  been  the 
design  of  the  wise  framers  of  the  Common  System.  It  is  repugnant  to 
every  principle  of  republicanism,  progress  and  justice.  In  Prussia  it  is 
said  that  every  child  is  “  due  to  the  School.”  Here,  it  may  be  laid  down 
as  one  of  our  social  principles,  that,  as  the  best  services  of  all  her  children 
are  due  to  the  State,  so,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  bring  out,  to  their 
fullest  extent,  all  the  talents  and  powers  for  good,  of  all  her  children. 
A  moment’s  reflection  will  show,  that  this  can  only  be  done  by  such 
arrangement  of  the  Schools  as  shall  enable  each  so  to  pursue  knowledge, 
as  appropriately  to  develop  all  his  higher  and  nobler  powers  and  that  this 
arrangement  is  but  another  name  for  gradation. 

Division,  of  labor  —  that  great  promoter  of  modern  improvement  —  no 
where  applies  more  efficiently  or  productively  than  in  the  business  of 
instruction.  Every  person,  conversant  with  the  subject,  is  aware  that,  under 
a  proper  system,  a  class  of  ten  or  even  twenty  Pupils,  of  similar  attainment 
and  studies,  may  be  heard  to  recite  in  the  same  length  of  time  as  a  class  of 
two  or  Three,  and  each  be  made  to  derive  an  equal  degree  of  benefit.  From 
this  it  rollows,  that  a  School  divided  into  two  or  three  classes  in  each  study, 
may  be  made  to  derive  a  much  larger  degree  of  benefit  in  the  same  time, 
than  one  composed  of  the  same  number  of  Pupils  broken  into  ten  or  fifteen 
classes.  This  desirable  result  can  only  be  effected  by  the  proper  gradation 
of  the  Schools,  which  is  nothing  more  than  that  systematic  division  of  labor 


ON  GRADING  SCHOOLS. 


11 


which  assigns  to  the  same  School  and  the  same  Teacher,  all  Pupils  of  the 
same  or  nearly  the  same  class  of  attainments  and  studies ;  sending  to  their 
appropriate  higher  or  lower  institutions,  those  engaged  in  other  branches. 

This  arrangement  will  be  found,  wherever  practicable,  to  be  the  most 
economical  mode  that  can  be  adopted  for  the  improvement  of  the  Schools. 
It  will  cause  a  greater  degree  of  progress  to  be  made  by  each  Pupil  in  the 
same  time,  as  well  as  enable  a  larger  number  to  be  properly  instructed  for 
the  same  expenditure.  Common  justice  will  finally  decide,  when  fullness 
of  supply  shall  permit  fair  competition,  that,  in  teaching,  as  in  every  other 
profession,  its  members  must  receive  compensation  in  proportion  to  their 
qualifications  and  services.  When  this  shall  generally  be  the  case  —  and 
already  it  is  the  rule  in  many  Districts — the  economy  of  graded  Schools  will 
be  plain.  Thus  :  if  there  are  only  fifty  Pupils  studying  Geography,  Gram¬ 
mar,  History  and  Algebra,  in  a  district  with  five  Schools,  and  if  these  fifty 
are  scattered  amongst  all  these  Schools,  it  requires  no  argument  to  show 
that  five  Teachers  of  the  higher  grade,  both  of  salary  and  qualification,  are 
or  ought  to  be  paid  to  do  what  one  might  more  readily  accomplish.  Nor  is 
the  waste  of  money  the  most  serious  evil.  The  time  and  minds  of  all  the 
Pupils  —  both  of  the  more  and  less  advanced  —  in  the  mixed  Schools,  are 
wasted  :  whereas,  by  the  proper  gradation  of  the  Schools  both  these  price¬ 
less  portions  of  the  capital  of  life,  now  in  the  process  of  investment  for 
eternity,  might  be  saved. 

The  existing  scarcity  of  well  qualified  Teachers,  forms  another  strong 
reason  for  speedy  classification.  So  long  as  there  shall  be  found  a  few 
Pupils  studying  the  higher  branches  in  every  School,  so  long  will  the  want 
of  more  Teachers  of  the  higher  branches  be  felt ;  and  this  want  will  increase 
and  cramp  the  system,  more  and  more.  Every  effort  to  improve  the  Schools 
without  grading  them,  will  but  increase  the  scarcity  of  Teachers  of  the 
higher  attainments,  by  causing  an  unreal  demand  for  their  services.  This 
state  of  things  will  also,  and  most  unjustly,  cause  many  worthy  and  com¬ 
paratively  successful  Teachers  of  the  lower  branches  to  be  decried,  or  to  be 
placed  in  the  false  position  of  being  compelled  to  attempt  instruction  in 
branches  above  their  present  attainments.  The  opening  of  two  or  three 
of  the  Schools  of  each  District,  solely  for  Pupils  in  the  higher  branches,  in 
the  care  of  properly  qualified  Teachers,  would  materially  lessen  both  these 
evils.  The  existing  scarcity  of  Teachers  of  the  higher  branches  would  be 
less  felt,  and  those  of  the  lower  Schools  be  relieved  from  their  present 
embarrassments.  By  these  remarks  it  is  not  designed  to  convey  the  idea 
that  any  one  is  fit  to  take  charge  of  a  Primary  School.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  known  that  peculiar  fitness  and  preparation  are  as  indispensable  in 
the  child’s  first  as  in  his  last  Teacher.  It  is,  however,  indisputable  that 
many  females  and  others,  not  yet  in  possession  of  the  higher  branches,  are 


12 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


admirably  adapted  by  tact,  disposition,  habit  and  acquirement,  to  the 
instruction  of  early  childhood  in  the  first  elements  of  knowledge.  Mixed 
or  ungraded  Schools,  by  imposing  instruction  in  all  the  branches  upon  their 
Teachers,  exclude  hundreds  of  such  from  the  profession.  The  grading  of 
the  Schools  will  correct  this  mere  practical  evil,  and  restore  them  to  their 
proper  position  and  to  a  large  degree  of  usefulness  ;  thus  increasing,  merely 
by  systematising,  the  teaching  force  of  the  system. 

The  government  of  the  Schools  will  also  be  found  to  be  facilitated  and 
their  moral  tone  improved  by  gradation.  Precisely  similar  motives  to  good 
conduct  and  incentives  to  study,  or  the  same  forms  of  restraint  and  punish¬ 
ment,  are  not  to  be  indifferently  employed  in  regard  to  all  classes  of  Pupils. 
Those  who  have  merely  passed  the  period  of  infancy  must  be  treated 
differently  from  those  who  are  approaching  maturity.  This  commingling 
of  the  various  species  of  discipline,  which  are  unavoidable  in  a  mixed 
School,  is  not  only  inconvenient,  but  to  some  extent  injurious  to  both 
classes  of  youth.  The  constant  association  of  the  very  young  with  those  of 
more  advanced  age  will  also,  probably,  be  found  to  be  more  or  less  morally 
and  intellectually  detrimental.  The  boy  of  six  or  seven  will,  naturally, 
imitate  the  lad  of  sixteen  or  seventeen ;  but  unfortunately,  that  perverseness 
which  seems  to  be  a  portion  of  our  nature,  will  cause  the  vices  of  the  exem¬ 
plar,  instead  of  his  virtues,  to  be  most  generally  copied.  So,  on  the  other 
hand,  though  the  elder  may  not  become  positively  demoralized,  in  the  ethical 
sense  of  the  term,  by  this  contact,  yet  he  incurs  the  risk  of  being  retarded 
in  his  intellectual  development,  and  of  losing  a  portion  of  opportunity  for 
that  useful  preparation  for  the  battle  of  life,  which  is  found  in  continually 
measuring  oneself  with  none  but  equals  and  superiors,  and  which  is, 
perhaps,  one  of  the  best  fruits,  as  it  should  be  an  essential  feature,  in  every 
well  ordered  School. 

The  terms,  equals  and  superiors  are,  of  course,  here  only  emjfioyed  in 
their  legitimately  republican  sense :  any  system  of  education  productive  of 
differences  in  society,  other  than  those  arising  from  inequalities  in  age, 
intellectual  attainment  and  morality,  being  in  direct  hostility  to  our  political 
and  social  institutions.  Hence,  it  may  be  well  to  inquire  whether  an  im¬ 
perfect  system  of  ungraded  Common  Schools  may  not  have  been  the  parent, 
to  some  extent,  of  those  unrepublican  classes  and  distinctions,  which  are 
becoming  more  strongly  and  obviously  developed  with  every  year  of  our 
progress  as  a  nation,  and  which  must  be  restrained. 

The  children  of  the  same  neighborhood,  of  all  conditions  in  life,  go  to 
the  same  School  to  acquire  the  rudiments  of  learning.  Thus  far  they 
receive  the  same  common  advantages,  as  well  as  experience  the  same 
feelings,  one  towards  the  other.  But  soon  the  son  or  the  daughter  of  the 
wealthier  parent  reaches  the  extent  of  knowledge  attainable  in  the  mixed 


ON  GRADING  SCHOOLS. 


13 


country  or  village  School,  and  must,  of  necessity,  be  sent  to  the  select  pri¬ 
vate  Academy,  or  the  distant  Boarding  School.  Of  necessity,  this  is  done ; 
for  higher  attainments  than  are  procurable  in  the  mixed  Common  School 
are  indispensable ;  bat  necessity,  also,  though  of  a  sadder  kind,  in  the  mean¬ 
while  detains  the  child  of  indigence  in  the  ungraded  home  School.  Thus, 
this  absence  of  grades  in  the  Schools  is  found  to  promote  those  very  grades 
in  society,  at  which  monarchists  sneer  and  over  which  patriots  mourn.  For 
here  —  at  the  very  outstart  in  life  —  commences  that  divergence  of  play¬ 
mate  from  playmate,  of*  neighbor  from  neighbor,  of  feeling  from  feeling, 
which  finally  stiffens  and  hardens  into  separate  ranks  and  classes,  and 
castes.  There  must,  it  is  admitted,  be  varieties  in  condition  and  worldly 
circumstances,  so  long  as  there  shall  be  differences  in  talent,  attainment  and 
attention  to  business  amongst  men.  But,  if  the  children  of  affluence  were, 
from  their  infancy,  taught  to,  desire  to  add  the  good  will  of  their  less 
favored  associates  to  their  other  treasures,  the  addition  would  not  be  found 
to  be  the  least  valuable  portion  of  their  inheritance.  Wealth  thus  enriched, 
would  be  a  public  blessing;  an  inheritance  thus  ungrudged  might  endure 
for  generations.  In  this  point  of  view,  the  social  effect  of  so  grading  the 
Schools  as  to  detain  the  youth  of  all  conditions  in  a  state  of  common  and 
associated  apprenticeship  to  republican  equality  and  simplicity,  presents 
itself  in  its  true  light. 

Finally,  a  strong  reason  in  favor  of  the  immediate  classification  of  the 
Schools,  is  the  effect  which  it  will  produce  upon  the  educational  feelings  of 
the  District.  While  the  Schools  are  mixed,  the  studies  confused,  their 
whole  condition  unattractive  and  the  general  result  therefore  unsatisfactory, 
little  increase  of  favor  to  the  Schools,  or  of  love  of  learning,  will  be  mani¬ 
fested.  The  Common  System  will  be  sustained,  or  rather  tolerated,  more 
out' of  an  indefinite  idea  of  duty  and  desire  to  promote  the  good  of  the 
future,  than  from  any  strong  conviction  of  its  value,  based  on  positive, 
tangible,  present,  beneficial  results.  But  grade  the  Schools  properly  and 
classify  the  Pupils  in  each  grade  correctly,  and  the  fruits  of  the  System  will 
soon  become  manifest.  Parents  will  then  see  that  their  children  are  making 
substantial  and  regular  progress,  in  their  own  home  Schools ;  they  will 
therefore  make  every  sacrifice  to  keep  them  longer  in  them  than*  they  now 
generally  do.  The  Pupils  themselves,  instead  of  wishing  for  the  day,  as 
they  now  generally  do,  when  they  shall  be  emancipated  from  the  tedium 
of  attendance  at  institutions  in  which  there  is  neither  methodical  study, 
the  hope  of  rising  to  a  higher  School,  nor  much  progress,  will  desire  to 
continue  in  each  grade,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  knowledge  to  be  acquired 
there,  but  for  the  honor  of  transfer  to  the  next.  Thus  a  new  feeling  will 
be  infused  into  all ;  and,  were  there  no  other  good  to  follow  the  arrange¬ 
ment,  this  alone  should  decide  in  its  favor. 


14 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


These  and  many  other  reasons  that  might  he  adduced,  seem  to  justify 
and  demand  the  grading  of  the  Schools,  wherever  practicable.  In  very 
many  Districts,  however,  this  is  not  yet  the  case ;  sparseness  of  popula¬ 
tion  being,  perhaps,  the  prevalent  and  only  really  insuperable  obstacle. 
Wherever  this  interposes,  Directors  must  continue  the  present  System  of 
ungraded  Schools  ;  their  only  choice  being  between  such  institutions  and 
none.  But  in  every  rural  District  of  moderate  density  of  population,  and 
in  every  considerable  Village,  Town  and  City  in  the  State,  the  time  per¬ 
mitted  to  elapse  before  the  systematic  and  thorough  classification  of  the 
Schools  and  of  the  Pupils  in  each  School,  takes  place,  is  just  so  much  time 
lost.  Indisputable  facts  establish  this  strong  assertion'.  Not  a  single  Dis¬ 
trict  can  be  pointed  out  in  the  whole  Commonwealth,  in  which  ungraded 
Schools  have  produced  the  full,  or  even  a  moderate  measure  of  the  success 
of  which  the  Common  System  is  capable ;  while  in  none  has  their  grading 
been  fairly  tried,  without  the  most  marked  success ;  nor  is  there  a  single 
instance  known,  or  believed  to  have  occurred,  of  its  abandonment  after 
having  been  once  properly  tested.  These  facts,  which  are  incontrovertible, 
unerringly  point  in  but  one  direction. 

Let  it  not  lie  urged,  even  by  the  most  thinly  peopled  districts,  that  these 
and  similar  considerations  have  no  bearing  upon  them.  It  might  be  so,  if 
the  Common  Schools  were  the  expedient  of  a  day  or  a  generation,  intended, 
like  a  tax-law  in  reference  to  the  State  debt,  or  a  levy  of  the  militia  in  the 
time  of  invasion  —  merely  to  meet  an  existing  emergency  and  then  be 
abandoned.  Widely  different  is  its  purpose  as  well  as  scope.  That  School 
is  more  for  the  distant  future  than  for  even  the  necessitous  present.  The 
ground  hallowed  by  its  walls  is  consecrated  forever.  Its  teacher,  forming 
as  he  does  one  in  the  long  succession  of  his  noble  calling,  is  set  apart  for 
the  highest  temporal  duty.  The  building  may  now  be  rude,  the  concourse 
of  Pupils  scant,  and  their  Instructor’s  qualifications  limited  ;  but  who  can 
foretell  the  changes  which  the  wants  and  the  progress  of  a  few  short  years 
may.  effect,  or  estimate  the  vastness  of  the  superstructure  which  must  rest 
on  this  foundation,  when  Pennsylvania  shall  double  or  treble  or  even  quad¬ 
ruple  her  present  millions,  and  this  Union  be  composed  of  scores  of  States 
as  populous  and  powerful  as  she.  The  grave  question  whether  any  or  all 
of  those  States  shall  then  be  her  superior  in  moral  and  intellectual  gran¬ 
deur,  must  be  mainly  determined  by  what  is  done  now.  The  State  is  the 
collective  power  of  the  people ;  and  the  character  of  the  people  is  the 
character  of  the  State.  It  is  considerations  of  this  kind  which  invest  with 
such  vast  importance  the  proper  establishment  and  regulation  of  our  insti¬ 
tutions  for  the  training  of  youth,  and  which  should  ever  keep  the  future, 
equally  with  the  present,  in  the  minds  of  all  entrusted  with  their  care. 


ON  grading  schools. 


-  15 

NATURE  OF  GRADATION. 

It  is  now  proper  to  consider,  more  closely,  the  nature  of  gradation.  This 
may  be  defined  as  being  such  an  arrangement  of  the  Schools  of  a  District, 
as  places  within  convenient  distance  of  every  youth  in  it,  a  School  cal¬ 
culated  to  afford  full  instruction  in  the  branches  of  learning,  proper  for  his 
or  her  age  and  degree  of  advancement.  To  effect  this  adaptation  of  the 
School  to  the  wants  of  the  Pupils,  two  systems  of  grading  are  in  use.  One 
is  the  establishment  of  one  or  more  separate  Schools,  for  the  instruction  of 
each  grade  of  Pupils,  assigning  to  each  School  the  number  of  Pupils  that 
one  Teacher  of  the  proper  grade  is  usually  supposed  capable  of  instructing. 
This  may  be  called  the  Separate  graded  System ;  the  Teachers  of  each 
grade,  and  of  each  School  in  each  grade,  being  separate  from  and  indepen¬ 
dent  of  the  rest.  The  other  system  is  effected  by  the  erection  of  one  large 
building,  under  the  charge  of  one  principal  Teacher  or  Superintendent, 
with  several  apartments  and  Teachers  or  assistants,  for  the  several  grades 
of  Pupils.  This  is  called  the  Union  graded  System;  because  all  the 
different  grades  are  in  the  same  building  and  united  under  one  chief 
Teacher.  Each  system  has  its  peculiar  advantages  and  disadvantages,  and 
consequently  its  advocates  and  opponents ;  but  the  result  of  both  will 
probably  be  found  to  depend  more  on  effective  arrangement  and  faithful 
administration,  than  on  any  inherent  qualities  in  either. 

The  Separate  System  is  the  only  one  that  can,  with  due  regard  to  the 
convenience  of  Pupils,  be  established  in  rural  Districts,  wdiere  the  distance 
of  most  of  the  Pupils,  and  especially  of  the  younger  ones,  from  the  centre 
of  the  District,  will  probably  ever  be  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  Union 
System.  And,  though  in  large  Towns  and  Cities  the  same  reason  for  its 
adoption  does  not  exist,  yet  even  there  it  has  its  comparative  advantages. 
It  avoids  the  concourse  and  noise  of  several  hundreds  of  children  at  one 
point;  it  diminishes  the  out  door  injurious  associations  that  more  or  less 
result  from  all  school  companionship ;  and  it  secures  to  each  Teacher  a 
greater  degree  of  independence  in  government  and  modes  of  instruction. 

A  peculiarity,  also,  of  the  Separate  graded  System  in  the  country,  is 
the  education  of  both  sexes  in  the  same  School.  This  is  not  the  place 
to  discuss  the  question  of  the  co-education  of  the  sexes ;  but  the  opinion 
may  be  safely  expressed,  that  it  is  not  such  an  evil  as  would  justify  any 
material  increase  of  expense  to  the  District,  or  of  inconvenience  to  the 
Pupils,  for  its  avoidance. 

On  the  other  hand  the  advantages  of  the  Union  system  are  numerous. 
One  School  is  more  easily  superintended  and  visited  than  several ;  by  the 
agency  of  a  good  Superintendent,  all  the  departments  can  be  kept  in 
successful  operation  with  little  effort  on  the  part  of  Directors.  It  is  more 


16 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


economical ;  —  a  large  building  for  hundreds  of  Scholars,  costing  less  for  con¬ 
struction,  heating  and  attendance,  than  separate  buildings,  of  the  right 
kind,  for  each  Teacher.  It  exhibits  the  Common  School  more  prominently 
as  a  public  institution ;  an  imposing  edifice,  with  numerous  Teachers  and 
hundreds  of  pupils,  being  more  attractive  of  attention,  than  several  small 
Schools,  each  with  its  single  Teacher  and  forty  or  fifty  Scholars. 

On  the  whole,  while  it  is  plain  that  the  Separate  System  of  graded  Schools 
is  alone  suitable  to  rural  Districts,  it  will  probably  be  found,  that,  in  Towns, 
Union  Schools  for  any  number  under,  say,  five  hundred  pupils,  will  be  most 
expedient ;  but  that  for  any  considerable  excess  over  that  number,  either 
an  additional  Union  School  will  be  required,  or  the  separate  system  be 
advisable.  A  successful  combination  of  the  two  systems  has  been  in  some 
places  effected  by  establishing  one  large  separate  School,  with  several 
Teachers,  for  all  the  pupils  of  nearly  the  same  grade  residing  within  -certain 
bounds.  This  is  found  to  work  well.  It  avoids  the  association  of  older 
and  younger  Pupils  on  the  same  play  ground,  and  the  bringing  together  of 
large  masses  at  the  same  point ;  while  it  enables  the  Schools  to  be  brought 
nearer  to  the  younger  Pupils,  and  at  the  same  time  provides  for  their  effec¬ 
tual  classification. 

In  the  rural  Districts  of  many  parts  of  the  State,  an  expedient  has  long 
been  in  use  to  effect  some  of  the  benefits  of  gradation.  Their  Schools  are 
kept  open  a  portion  of  the  summer  and  autumn,  under  female  Teachers, 
for  the  younger  children,  and  in  winter  for  larger  ones,  under  more 
advanced  instructors,  whether  male  or  female.  This  is  nothing  but  an 
imperfect  grading,  without  the  expense  of  additional  School  houses ;  and  as 
it  seems  to  be  better  than  the  mixed  system,  it  is  to  be  commended,  so  long 
as  the  Districts  are  satisfied  with  the  duration  of  instruction  which  the 
arrangement  affords  to  both  classes  of  pupils. 

In  some  Districts,  assistant  Teachers  are  employed,  at  less  salary,  to 
instruct  the  younger  Pupils,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Principal,  and  in  the 
same  room.  This  is  also  an  approach  towards  grading,  and  is  better  than 
over-loading  one  Teacher  with  the  duty  of  instructing  a  large  School, 
divided  into  numerous  classes  ;  though  it  is  liable  to  several  of  the  objec¬ 
tions  to  the  mixed  School.  It  will,  however,  probably  be  found,  on  close 
examination  into  most  cases  of  this  kind,  that  the  regular  gradation  of  the 
Schools  on  the  Separate  System,  is  not  only  practicable,  but  would  be  much 
more  effective,  at  little  if  any  increased  expense. 

NUMBER  OF  GRADES. 

The  number  of  fixed  grades  which  constitute  a  regular  series  of  classified 
Schools,  will  be  found  to  result  from  the  nature  of  the  studies  pursued  in 
the  District.  In  most  large  mixed  Schools  there  are  three  well  defined 


ON  GRADING  SCHOOLS. 


17 


classes  or  groups  of  studies,  and  consequently  of  Pupils.  First :  Those  who 
are  learning  the  rudiments  of  Reading,  Writing  and  Arithmetic,  and  who 
compose  the  large  majority.  Second :  A  smaller  number,  who,  having  to 
some  extent  mastered  the  rudiments  of  those  branches,  are  seeking  farther 
advancement  in  them,  and  adding  also  the  knowledge  of  Grammar,  Geo¬ 
graphy,  the  Plistory  of  their  own  country,  and  general  or  practical  Arith¬ 
metic.  Third :  A  very  few,  who  desire  to  obtain  a  critical  command  of 
their  own  language ;  a  knowledge  of  general  Geography  and  History,  with 
Algebra,  Geometry  and  the  higher  Mathematics ;  some  acquaintance  with 
the  Natural  and  Moral  sciences ;  and,  it  may  be,  the  elements  of  other 
languages,  ancient  or  modern.  The  first  study  the  Primary  Branches  indis¬ 
pensable  to  all ;  the  study  of  the  Grammar  of  their  own  language  is  the 
characteristic  of  the  course  of  the  second,  while  the  pursuit  of  the  Higher 
Branches  is  reserved  for  the  third.  Hence,  where  separate  schools  or 
grades  are  established,  the  members  of  each  class  naturally  group. them¬ 
selves  together,  and  their  respective  schools  are  thus  called  Primary,  Gram¬ 
mar,  and  High  Schools. 

In  large  Towns  and  Cities  there  are  other  grades,  as  Secondary,  Interme¬ 
diate,  &c.  These,  however,  are  merely  subdivisions  of  the  three  fixed 
grades,  made  for  the  sake  of  local  convenience  and  more  fully  to  apply  the 
great  principle  of  the  division  of  labor  to  the  business  of  teaching.  They 
are  not  sufficiently  distinct  in  their  nature  to  be  recognized  independently 
of  local  considerations,  nor  can  any  rules  be  laid  down  for  their  establish¬ 
ment.  Each  case  of  this  kind  must  necessarily  depend  on  its  own  circum¬ 
stances. 

But  that  the  three  fixed  grades,  just  named,  of  Scholars  and  studies,  exist, 
no  one  at  all  conversant  with  the  Schools  will  deny.  In  fact  not  only  do 
Pupils  thus  group  themselves  in  School,  but,  when  advisedly  and  not  by  ac¬ 
cident  or  carelessness  withdrawn  from  School,  it  is,  in  most  cases,  at  the  end 
of  one  of  these  three  grades  or  courses.  Grammar,  Geography,  advanced 
Arithmetic  and  History  are  thought  unnecessary  by  thousands  of  parents, 
and  their  children  are  therefore  taken  from  School  when  possessed  of  the 
mere  rudiments  of  Reading,  Writing  and  Arithmetic.  Mathematics,  the 
sciences  and  the  languages  are  deemed  useless  by  others,  and  their’s  are 
permitted  to  proceed  no  further  than  the  Grammar  course;  while  the 
children  of  parents  with  more  liberal  views  generally  continue  till  possessed 
of  all  the  acquirements  attainable  in  the  highest  class. 

These  being  the  grades,  it  may  safely  be  asserted,  that,  whether  in  town 
or  country,  no  gradation  is  at  all  perfect  which  does  not  provide  for,  or  tend 
to  produce  the  following  results  :  I.  The  separation  of  the  Primary  Pupils 
from  those  of  more  advanced  age  and  studies :  II.  The  careful  and  thorough 
instruction  of  every  Pupil  in  all  the  studies  of  his  proper  grade,  before 
3 


18 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


transfer  to  a  higher:  and  III.  The  establishment,  as  soon  as  practicable,  of 
a  High  School,  in  which  such  sound  English  instruction  may  be  given  as 
shall  prepare  its  possessor  for  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life,  or,  if  destined  to 
a  farther  literary  or  scientific  career,  for  entrance  into  the  special  institu¬ 
tion  appropriate  to  the  case.  Short  of  this,  any  classification  that  may  be 
devised  will  do  manifest  injustice  to  the  Common  System ;  and,  though  all 
of  this  cannot,  and,  probably  should  not,  now,  be  every  where  attempted, 
yet,  to  the  full  though  gradual  development  of  this  result,  no  matter  how 
distant,  all  present  measures  of  gradation  should  be  plainly  and  steadily 
directed. 

In  grading  the  Schools  of  most  rural  Districts,  it  will  be  at  once  per¬ 
ceived  that  only  the  Primary  and  Grammar  grades  are  at  first  practicable. 
It  would  be  a  waste  of  effort,  as  well  as  an  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  the 
System,  at  once  to  establish  a  High  School  in  such  Districts.  Nay  it  might 
even  be  called  injustice  to  the  Primary  and  Grammar  School  pupils,  who 
are  by  far  the  larger  number.  Even  to  permit  the  High  School  course 
to  be  pursued  or  mixed  up  with  the  study  of  the  lower  grades,  to  such  extent 
as  to  interfere  with  them,  would  be  unadvisable.  If  the  first  two  grades  are 
established  and  efficiently  taught  for  two  or  three  years,  they  will,  of  them¬ 
selves,  produce  the  High  School,  by  sending  forth  a  sufficient  number  of  well 
qualified  Pupils  to  fill  it.  Its  establishment  will  then  be  the  act  of  the 
system  itself,  and  not  the  forced  measure  of  the  Directors. 

The  first  duty,  therefore,  of  Directors  in  rural  Districts  in  the  gradation 
of  the  Schools,  would  seem  to  be  to  establish  the  Primary  and  Grammar 
grades,  and  to  see  that  the  studies  proper  to  each  are  rigidly  pursued.  In 
towns,  the  three  grades,  at  least,  should  be  organized  at  once.  But,  whether 
in  town  or  in  country,  they  must  all  sooner  or  later  come  into  existence  ; 
for  the  number  requiring  the  course  of  instruction  which  can  be  alone  given 
in  well  graded  Schools  is  rapidly  increasing.  It  is  also  becoming  manifest 
that  this  instruction  can  be  imparted  to  them  more  equally,  more  economi¬ 
cally,  and  with  much  greater  moral  safety,  in  the  home  Common  School, 
than  in  the  expensive  boarding  School  of  the  distant  and  seductive  town, 
or  in  the  equally  dangerous  and  expensive  College  Preparatory  School. 
This  question  in  social  arithmetic  will  soon  and  finally  be  solved  in  favor 
ofasmuchof  home  education  as  the  circumstances  of  each  District  will 
admit.  The  High  Common  School  will  thus,  at  the  right  time,  by  the 
right  means,  and  with  right  results,  occupy  its  proper  place  in  the  system. 
It  need  not  be  forced.  All  that  is  necessary  now  is  to  lay  the  foundation  for 
it,  by  establishing  and  duly  cherishing  the  Primary  and  Grammar  grades. 

Let  it  not  be  said  that  the  course  of  study  contemplated  by  this  series  of 
Schools,  is  beyond  the  necessities  of  the  youth  of  the  State.  The  time  will 
come  and  may  be  even  now  near  at  hand,  when  nothing  short  of  this 


ON  GRADING  SCHOOLS. 


19 


degree,  at  the  very  least,  of  sound  knowledge,  will  meet  the  stern  demands 
which  shall  be  made  on  the  American  citizen.  Here,  almost  every  one 
votes,  and  to  vote  understandingly  should  know  the  history  of  the  past  and 
the  condition  of  the  present ;  —  this  of  necessity  makes  or  should  make  him 
a  general  reader.  All  may  aspire  to  public  office,  requiring  the  power  to 
express  thought  either  orally  cr  on  paper,  so  as  to  influence  others;  — this 
cannot  be  done  without  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  mother  tongue.  In  no 
country  in  the  world  is  the  acquisition  of  property  more  open  or  easy  to 
every  one  who  strives  for  it ;  —  this  constantly  calls  into  use  the  art  of 
writing  and  the  knowledge  of  accounts.  The  mechanic  arts  —  even  the 
long  neglected  business  of  agriculture  —  are  now  found  to  rest  on  the  great 
principles  of  natural  science ;  and  hence  those  sciences  are  rapidly  taking 
their  place  among  the  indispensable  branches  of  an  ordinary  education. 
In  a  word,  the  son  of  the  poorest  citizen,  may  in  the  progress  of  events,  be 
placed,  as  a  citizen,  in  a  position  requiring  more  than  all  the  knowledge 
embraced  in  the  course  now  designated.  If  evil  to  the  country  happen 
through  his  ignorance,  the  grave  question  will  then  arise,  Who  is  guilty  :  — 
he  who  ignorantly  accepted  the  position,  or  the  Country  which  failed  so  to 
regulate  and  administer  its  system  of  public  instruction,  which  was  his  sole 
reliance,  as  to  prepare  him  for  the  proper  discharge  of  h?s  duty  ? 


20 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


II.  ON  LOCATING  SCHOOLS. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  SITES  FOR  SCHOOL  HOUSES  OF  VARIOUS  GRADES. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

A  cursory  view  of  this  subject  generally  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
selection  of  a  School  house  site  is  a  matter  of  little  importance.  If  a  cheap 
lot,  central  in  position;  and  readily  accessible,  can  be  obtained,  it  is  often 
adopted,  without  further  thought  or  any  regard  to  other  requisites.  This 
is  a  grave  error,  and  it  is  time  that  the  subject  should  be  more  fully  con¬ 
sidered  and  the  true  principles  involved  in  right  location  taken  into  account; 
so  that  their  legitimate  consequences  may  be  foreseen  and  provided  for. 

The  selection  of  the  place  for  the  School  house  of  a  neighborhood,  is  an 
act  involving  more  than  the  mere  purchase  of  a  few  rods  of  ground,  the 
erection  of  a  rude  building,  and  the  opening  of  some  kind  of  School  at  the 
earliest  possible  period,  so  that  children  of  other  parts  of  the  District  shall 
not  get  the  start,  by  a  few  days  or  weeks,  of  those  for  whom  it  is  intended. 
It  is  an  act  for  posterity.  The  site  now  to  be  chosen,  may  and  probably 
will  continue  to  affect,  by  its  nature  and  associations,  the  feelings  and  the 
tastes,  and  through  these,  the  whole  character  of  the  surrounding  commu¬ 
nity  tor  generations  and  probably  for  centuries.  As  children,  the  members 
of  that  community  will  receive  their  earliest  School  impressions  there. 
Further,  to  make  School  attractive,  is,  to  no  small  extent,  to  render  learning 
attractive;  and  if  the  act  of  learning  once  become  agreeable,  and  this 
feeling  be  kept  up  not  only  by  proper  instruction  but  by  pleasing  outward 
associations  and  intluences,  the  habit  of  voluntary  study  will  soon  become 
fixed.  Thus  the  love  of  knowledge  may  be  impressed  as  a  life  long  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  individual.  How  important,  then,  as  a  constituent  element 
in  the  production  of  this  desirable  result,  is  the  procuring  of  an  attractive 
and  proper  site  for  every  School  house. 

The  degree  of  this  attractiveness  depends  both  on  the  beauty  and  the 
adaptation  of  the  site.  A  proper  School  lot  is  not  merely  a  central  spot, 
large  enough  to  accommodate  the  building  and  readily  accessible  to  all  the 
Pupils.  In  addition  to  this,  it  should  also  be  a  pleasant  place,  so  that  they, 
for  whose  use  it  is  designed,  should  wish  to  go  and  be  there ;  —  a  place 
large  enough  for,  and  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of,  the  usual  and  legitimate 
enjoyments  of  play-time ;  —  a  place  possessed  of  all  the  conveniences  neces- 


ON  LOCATING  SCHOOLS. 


21 


sary  for  the  purpose,  yet  so  retired  from  improper  extraneous  influences  as 
to  avoid  the  exposure  of  the  Pupil’s  health  to  injury,  his  manners  to  rude¬ 
ness,  or  his  morals  to  contamination.  Hence  the  centralcess,  the  accessi¬ 
bility,  the  size,  the  healthfulness,  the  pleasantness,  the  retirement,  and  the 
convenience  of  the  site,  are  all  to  be  regarded  in  making  the  selection. 

Each  of  these  points  will  now  be  considered  in  reference  to  rural  Schools 
of  all  grades,  inasmuch  as  they  are  common  to  every  class  of  those  Schools. 
Next  certain  points  peculiar  to  the  location  of  rural  graded  Schools  will 
be  discussed,  and,  last,  the  principles  involved  in  the  proper  location  of 
town  Schools  will  be  presented. 

REQUISITES  IN  THE  SITES  OF  ALL  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS. 

In  discussing  the  following  requisites  to  be  attained  by  the  proper  loca¬ 
tion  of  School  houses,  it  is  not  designed  to  convey  the  idea,  that  the  whok 
existing  arrangements  of  any  District  should,  at  once,  be  abandoned  anc’ 
new  sites  selected,  to  secure  the  points  now  recommended.  This  would  b( 
inexpedient  even  if  it  were  practicable.  But  as  all  the  School  sites  have  not 
in  some  Districts,  been  yet  permanently  arranged,  and  as,  in  others,  addi¬ 
tions  to  their  number  and  changes  are  continually  occurring,  it  is  well  tc 
have  the  great  principles  which  ought  to  govern  the  subject  constantly  in 
view.  If  the  whole  topic  be  discussed  and  understood  there  will  be  no  diffi¬ 
culty  in  applying  the  proper  principles  to  such  parts  as  may,  from  time  to 
time,  present  themselves ;  and  thus,  gradually,  a  general  improvement  may 
be  effected,  without  violent  changes  or  unnecessary  expense. 

Centralness.  —  The  finding  of  the  actual  local  centre  of  the  proposed 
School  bounds  is  a  matter  of  no  great  difficulty.  But  even  when  the  nurnbei 
of  Schools  necessary  for  a  District  is  determined,  the  division  of  its  terri 
tory  into  a  similar  number  of  sub-divisions  made,  and  the  exact  terri toria 
centre  of  each  found,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  process  of  location 
has  been  satisfactorily  effected.  There  are  other  conditions  to  be  regarded, 
the  neglect  of  which  will  inevitably  lead  to  subsequent  confusion  and  diffi¬ 
culty.  It  is  not  the  territory  that  is  to  be  accommodated,  but  the  youth 
inhabiting  it ;  and  in  seeking  to  accommodate  these,  as  all  cannot  be  fur¬ 
nished  with  equal  facilities,  the  location  is  to  be  made  so  as  to  satisfy  the 
largest  number. 

Hence  centralness  relates  more  to  population  than  to  territory  ;  but  even 
in  reference  to  population,  equality  of  distance  from  extreme  residents  is 
not  always  to  be  decisive  in  favor  of  a  particular  site.  A  very  few  may 
dwell  on  one  side  of  it,  at  the  extreme  verge  of  the  School  bounds.  The 
great  mass  may  be  at  various  and  considerable  distances  on  the  other. 
Owing  to  barrenness  of  soil,  or  other  causes,  the  number  of  the  former  will 
probably  never  materially  increase ;  that  of  the  latter  may.  All  these  and 


99 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


similar  circumstances  are  to  be  taken  into  view,  and  from  a  just  combina¬ 
tion  of  them,  botli  in  their  present  and  future  aspects,  such  a  site  should  be 
selected  as  is  now  and  shall  continue  to  be  as  central  to  the  whole  popula¬ 
tion,  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit.  This  is  all  that  can  be  expected 
or  should  be  attempted,  on  this  point,  considered  separately. 

Accessibility.  —  Centralness,  even  considered  in  reference  to  population, 
should  be,  to  some  extent,  also  controlled  by  accessibility.  Some  Pupils 
may  reside  at  a  short  distance  in  a  straight  line,  from  a  proposed  site,  yet 
an  intervening  stream  or  mountain  may  render  miles  of  travel  necessary 
to  reach  it.  Some,  on  the  other  hand,  may  live  twice  as  far  otf,  yet,  having 
none  of  these  impediments  to  contend  with,  may  reach  the  School  with 
less  actual  walking  than  the  former.  The  apparent  distance  of  each  class 
in  a  straight  line  from  the  School,  is  therefore  not  always  to  be  regarded, 
but  the  actual  distance  to  be  traveled,  taking  into  account  the  natural  and 
unavoidable  barriers  in  the  way. 

Impediments  of  this  kind  ought  always  to  be  taken  into  view,  in  the  first 
sub-division  of  a  District ;  and,  if  possible,  they  should  be  made  the  boun¬ 
daries  between  Schools.  But  where  this  is  impracticable,  they  must  be 
taken  into  full  account  in  the  location  of  the  house.  Where  the  territory 
attached  to  a  School  is  traversed  by  a  large  stream  or  mountain,  if  there 
be  a  bridge  over  the  one  or  a  gap  in  the  other,  the  vicinity  of  either  will 
be,  in  point  of  mere  accessibility,  a  fit  location  for  the  School. 

Territory  champaign  in  its  surface  and  undivided  by  considerable  streams, 
is  generally  traversed  in  opposite  directions  by  a  system  of  public  roads.  If 
due  and  prudent  advantage  be  taken  of  these,  the  accessibility  of  the  site 
may  be  greatly  promoted. 

On  the  whole,  like  centralness,  accessibility  consists  in  promoting  the 
convenience  of  the  greatest  possible  number  of  Pupils. 

Size.  — A  School  lot  should  be  a  full  acre  in  extent;  less  than  half  an 
acre  should  not  be  accepted,  even  as  a  gift.  Land  is  now  comparatively 
cheap  in  most  of  the  counties,  and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  this  cir¬ 
cumstance  to  provide  liberally  for  the  probable  wants  of  the  future.  The 
quarter  of  an  acre  may,  at  present,  serve  for  the  School  house  and  a  small 
play-ground.  But  when  the  Common  School  becomes  fully  matured, — when 
all  its  tendencies  shall  be  developed  and  its  parts  complete,  it  will  probably 
be,  too  late,  discovered  that  a  “  rood  of  ground”  is  not  space  enough  for  the 
full  proportions  of  its  maturity. 

The  Teacher  is  now  nobly  laboring  for  a  “  name”  amongst  the  learned 
professions.  Soon  public  sentiment  will  assign  him  also  a  “  local  habita¬ 
tion.”  The  Teacher’s  House  will  and  ought  to  be  as  much  an  appendage 
to  the  School,  as  the  parsonage  to  the  church.  Reading,  writing  and  arith¬ 
metic —  the  mere  ABC  of  knowledge—  will  not — cannot  —  long  satisfy 


ON  LOCATING  SCHOOLS. 


23 


this  people,  or  the  wants  of  their  position.  The  higher,  bat  still  the  useful 
sciences  must  also  come  into  requisition.  Hence,  agriculture,  botany  and 
the  kindred  branches  will  force  their  way  into  the  common  course  of  studies. 
When  these  things  shall  come  to  pass,  the  Districts  that  shall  have  foreseen 
them,  and  provided  ground  enough  for  a  Teacher’s  house,  a  garden  for  his 
use,  and  the  instruction  of  his  Pupils,  and  space  for  trees,  shrubs  and  plants 
of  the  various  kinds  necessary  to  illustrate  their  studies  in  the  vegetable 
world,  will  have  no  cause  to  regret  the  prudent  forecast. 

Even  in  reference  to  the  present,  a  small  School  lot  is  often  the  cause  of 
unpleasant  occurrences.  Childhood  will  have  its  plays  and  games.  If  there 
is  not  space  for  them  on  the  proper  play-ground,  the  public  road  is  occu¬ 
pied,  to  the  annoyance  of  travelers  and  often  to  their  own  detriment ;  or 
the  premises  of  some  neighboring  farmer  are  trespassed  6n,  to  his  injury 
and  to  the  Teacher’s  blame.  A  few  dollars  expended  for  an  acre,  or  even 
half  an  acre  of  ground,  would  prevent  these  present  evils  and  secure  much 
future  advantage. 

Healthfulness.  —  A  good  sized  lot,  near  the  exact  centre  and  quite  acces¬ 
sible  from  all  points  of  the  proposed  bounds,  may  be  had  cheaply,  or  even 
for  nothing;  but  if  it  be  such  as  to  endanger  the  health  of  the  youth  who 
are  to  resort  thither,  it  should  be  unhesitatingly  rejected.  Marshy  and  low 
damp  places,  or  those  in  close  vicinity  with  artificial  mill  ponds  and  slug¬ 
gish  streams,  or  to  such  as  periodically  expose  much  of  their  beds  to  the 
air,  should  always  be  avoided.  The  vapors  from  these  are  highly  injurious. 
On  the  other  hand,  high,  bleak  situations,  especially  when  exposed  to  the 
north,  north-west,  or  north-east  storms,  are  also  objectionable,  on  account 
of  frequent  changes  and  exposure  to  extreme  degrees  of  cold  in  the  winter, 
during  which  season  the  greater  portion  of  the  teaching  term  occurs. 

An  elevated  situation,  backed  if  possible  by  a  grove  or  higher  ground, 
sloping  gently  in  front  towards  the  south,  with  a  clear  sweep  for  the  air 
on  the  south,  east  and  west,  is  the  most  desirable.  But,  if  all  these  points 
cannot  be  combined,  as  many  of  them  as  attainable  should  be  secured.  Salu¬ 
brity  consists  as  well  in  the  avoidance  of  causes  positively  injurious,  as  in 
the  presence  of  all  the  desirable  qualities  that  might  be  named.  Hence, 
no  consideration  should  induce  or  will  justify  the  adoption  of  an  unwhole¬ 
some  site;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  healthfulness  may  belong  to  so  many 
varied  positions,  as  to  render  their  enumeration  unnecessary,  if  not  impos¬ 
sible. 

It  needs  only  be  added,  on  this  topic,  that  Directors  should  never  overlook 
or  undervalue  its  importance.  Scarcely  less  momentous  is  the  securing  of 
the  Pupil’s  physical  health  by  means  of  a  properly  located  and  constructed 
school  building,  than  the  promotion  of  his  intellectual  and  moral  well-being 
by  the  services  of  a  competent  teacher. 


24 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Pleasantness,  or  beauty  of  position,  almost  as  much  improves  the  tone 
of  the  mind,  as  healthfulness  of  location  does  that  of  the  body;  and  it  is 
but  another  instance  of  the  goodness  of  Providence,  that  that  which  is 
necessary  and  useful  is  also  often  agreeable  and  beautiful.  The  high,  airy 
and  commanding  site  —  be  it  for  school,  dwelling,  or  town  —  is  as  attractive 
by  its  beauty  as  it  is  desirable  for  its  salubrity ;  and  the  buoyant  vigor  of 
body  it  confers  is  well  calculated  to  enhance  the  enjoyment  of  its  charms. 
Life  is  made  up  of  innumerable  incidents  and  events,  some  of  them  incon¬ 
siderable —  apparently  almost  trivial  —  in  their  nature,  but  not  therefore 
trivial  in  their  consequences.  Hence,  the  child  who  daily  emerges  from 
the  valley  and  mounts,  gradually  higher  and  higher,  to  his  place  of  study  — 
each  moment  widening  his  horizon  and  bringing  new  objects  into  view  and 
presenting  new  subjects  for  contemplation  —  will,  probably,  enter  the  school 
room  with  higher  spirit  and  better  feeling,  than  he  who  plunges  down, 
through  gloom  and  damp  and  mire,  to  his  silent  secluded  mind-prison  at  the 
edge,  it  may  be,  of  the  brooding  marsh. 

It  is  time  that  the  beautiful  should  be  recognized  as  an  element  in  edu¬ 
cation  ;  and  if  so,  at  what  point  may  it  be  more  easily  or  effectually  com¬ 
menced,  than  in  the  selection  of  the  place  for  study  ?  Let  it  be  remembered 
how  many  of  the  hours  of  plastic  childhood  are  to  be  there  passed,  and 
how  impossible  it  is  for  the  most  observant  to  fully  detect  and  estimate  the 
injurious  effects  of  unpleasant  outward  objects  and  influences,  upon  the  moral 
character.  We  obtain  our  ideas  through  our  senses;  and  if  sight,  the  most 
important  of  them,  be  constantly  exercised  upon  repulsive  objects,  or  within 
a  narrow  scope,  during  the  most  impressible  years  of  life,  the  ideas  supplied 
through  this  medium  must  be  of  the  same  kind  and  the  mind  take  the  same 
tinge  and  stint.  So  of  abstract  ideas  and  moral  qualities  ;  —  we,  of  necess¬ 
ity  as  often  as  from  choice,  express  them  by  the  terms  proper  to  physi¬ 
cal  objects,  and  thus  measure  and  stamp  them,  as  it  were,  by  the  same 
means.  But  if  the  natural  objects  which  we  daily  contemplate,  and  there¬ 
fore  use  for  this  higher  purpose,  be  of  a  mean  and  repulsive  kind,  is  there 
not  some  danger  that  the  intellectual  and  moral  character,  whose  standard 
they  thus  become,  may  also  be  low,  contracted  and  grovelling?  Beauty, 
beyond  all  question,  is  a  want  of  the  human  soul,  and  should  be  a  part  of 
that  soul’s  training,  in  every  department  of  human  culture. 

As  to  beauty  of  local  position,  it  is  as  unnecessary  as  it  would  be  difficult 
to  specify  the  features  of  which  it  is  constituted.  They  are  as  various  as 
the  ever  varying  charms  of  nature.  Breadth  of  view,  when  it  can  be 
obtained,  is  the  great  element.  But  if  this  be  unattainable  and  a  limited 
prospect  must  be  adopted,  still  all  repulsive  or  gloomy  objects  should  be 
avoided.  Fortunately,  softness  of  outline  and  gentleness  of  undulation,  are 
often  beheld  in  a  small  compass  ;  and  even  separate  features  of  grandeur  — 


ON  LOCATING-  SCHOOLS. 


25 


as  a  massive  rock  or  the  giant  tree  —  sometimes  enrich  the  narrow  prospect. 
The  constant  sight  of  a  fine  grove,  the  quiet  meadow  studded  with  trees,  or 
the  margin  of  a  distant  stream  or  lake  ;  —  the  hum  of  a  neighboring  village 
or  the  noise  of  a  mill;  —  the  view  of  the  busy  bridge,  the  turnpike,  the 
canal,  or  the  railway;  —  all  give  variety  to  the  thoughts,  as  well  as  impress 
a  taste  for  useful  beauty.  It  is  true  that  attention  to  considerations  of  this 
kind  may  not  produce  effects  instantly  perceptible  ;  but  if  there  is  truth  in 
that  religion  which  describes  Heaven  as  a  state  of  peace,  joy  and  beauty, 
of  love,  purity  and  holiness,  the  youth  trained  under  the  influence  of  as 
many  of  these  elements  as  possible,  must  thereby  have  their  happiness 
here,  and  their  fitness  for  greater  happiness  hereafter,  increased. 

Retirement:  —  By  this  is  meant  the  withdrawal  of  schools,  as  much  as 
possible,  from  the  reach  of  all  disturbing,  rude  or  demoralizing  causes. 
The  bridge-end,  the  tavern-yard,  the  store-porch,  or  the  blacksmith-shop, 
with  the  coarse  language  and  profanity  which  too  often  disgrace  their  ball- 
alleys  and  quoit-grounds ;  —  the  noisy  cross-road,  the  canal-lock,  and  rail¬ 
way  station;  — the  river  landing  with  its  periodical  bustle,  the  ferry  with 
its  constant  variety  of  passengers,  or  the  furnace,  the  factory,  and  the  mine- 
bank —  these  are  no  desirable  next-door  neighbors  to  the  school  for  youth. 
All  these  and  all  such  are  better  at  a  distance.  The  formation  of  tastes 
and  habits  —  the  education  of  the  manners  and  the  morals — consists  almost 
as  much  in  the  evil  evaded  as  in  the  good  acquired.  If  the  “  evil  commu¬ 
nication”  from  without,  keep  equal  pace  with  the  good  communicated  within 
the  school  room,  the  pupil  may  grow  in  years  and  size,  but  not  in  refine¬ 
ment  and  virtue.  If  either  preponderate,  it  will  probably  be,  under  such 
circumstances,  that  evil  to  which  the  condition  of  our  nature  is  so  prone. 

The  right  course,  then,  is  to  close  the  door  against  as  much  of  outward 
evil  as  practicable,  that  the  sound  instructions  of  the  school-room  may  have 
the  largest  possible  sway ;  always  bearing  in  mind,  in  this  connection,  that 
a  day  or  a  year  of  demoralizing  association  evaded,  is  a  day  or  a  year  saved, 
for  good.  Next  to  the  positive  instilment  of  sound  principles,  the  actual 
avoidance  of  wrong  habits,  is  the  best  object  that  can  be  effected  for  the 
young ;  and  the  location  of  a  school  that  promotes  this  result,  greatly  aids 
the  moral  instructions  of  the  Teacher. 

Another  object  deserves  more  attention,  on  this  point,  than  has  heretofore 
been  conceded.  The  right  and  duty  of  the  Teacher  to  supervise  and  con¬ 
trol  for  good  the  conduct  of  the  Pupils  at  play,  during  their  recesses  and 
intermissions,  are  midoubted  and  obligatory.  But  what  control  can  he  ex¬ 
ercise  or  what  beneficial  effect  can  he  produce,  if,  the  instant  they  issue 
from  the  door  of  the  School-building,  his  Pupils  are  thrown  into  contact 
with  the  disturbing  and  it  may  be  evil  influences  of  the  outside  world  ?  It  is 
4 


2G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


its  much  their  right  to  be  secluded  from  all  such,  during  their  play  as  during 
their  study  hours. 

In  the  intellectual  relation,  also,  the  proper  selection  of  a  site  may  be 
highly  beneficial  or  the  reverse.  Scholars,  whose  attention  is  diverted  from 
study  by  constantly  recurring  sights  or  sounds  from  beyond  the  School¬ 
room,  cannot  be  expected  to  make  that  progress  nor  acquire  those  habits  of 
close  application,  so  essential  to  their  success  in  life.  Hence,  if  for  no  other 
or  higher  reason,  all  localities  subjected  to  such  annoyances  are  to  be 
avoided. 

Convenience.  —  Under  this  head  may  be  included  certain  minor  consid¬ 
erations,  which  should  not  be  overlooked.  For  instance,  -no  School  should 
be  placed  so  far  from  a  public  road  or  thoroughfare,  as  to  cause  the  Teacher 
or  Pupils  to  commit  trespass  on  private  property  in  reaching  it,  or  subject 
them  to  serious  difficulty  and  annoyance  on  their  way  thither  in  bad 
weather. — Neither  should  it  be  without  a  spring  or  well  of  good  water  on 
the  lot ;  or  if  on  other  property,  it  should  be  reasonably  near,  with  the  right  of 
free  and  constant  access. — Nor  ought  a  School  house  to  be  so  far  from  one 
or  more  dwelling  houses  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  aid  in  time  of  fire, 
sickness,  panic,  or  disturbance  by  rude  persons.  Many  of  our  Schools  are 
taught  by  delicate  females,  and  the  Pupils  are  frequently  of  tender  years. 
InstaucesTiave  occurred  of  disturbance  of  them  by  drunken,  .wicked  or  de¬ 
ranged  persons,  and  of  other  sudden  emergencies  requiring  assistance.  In 
all  such  cases,  the  vicinity  of  a  dwelling  hou§e  is  a  great  protection  and 
support,  and  one  which  should  not  be  disregarded  in  the  location. 

LOCATION  OF  RURAL  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

Nearly  all  the  foregoing  observations  on  the  choice  of  sites,  are  as  appli¬ 
cable  to  graded  as  to  ungraded  Schools  in  the  country ;  the  main  difference 
being  that  the  higher  Schools  may  be  so  placed  as  to  impose  a  longer  walk 
on  their  Pupils,  which,  owing  to  their  more  advanced  age  and  greater 
strength,  they  will  be  able  to  bear. 

In  the  location  of  Schools  of  the  higher  grades,  in  a  rural  District,  it  will 
be  found  that  exact  centralness  with  reference  to  all  the  Primary  School 
bounds  to  be  accommodated,  must  often  be  disregarded,  even  more  than  in 
the  case  of  ungraded  Schools.  The  weight  of  population  will  be  in  or  near 
some  hamlet  or  village,  or  in  some  very  densely  inhabited  part  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict  ;  and  thither  also,  from  other  parts,  the  roads  will  probably  point.  In 
such  vicinities,  therefore,  will  the  Grammar  School  naturally  find  its  site, 
because  thence  it  will  draw  most  of  its  students. 

At  first  view  it  might  seem  that  the  ultimate  grading  of  country  Schools 
can  be  much. facilitated,  by  keeping  that  object  in  view  in  the  first  location 


ON  LOCATING  SCHOOLS. 


27 


and  construction  of  the  ungraded  Schools  of  the  District.  But  this  will  he 
found  not  to  be  the  case,  to  any  considerable  extent.  For,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
plan  of  Separate  graded  Schools  will  prevail  in  the  country,  and  the  present 
ungraded,  will  ultimately  become  their  Primary  Schools ;  and  when  those  of 
a  higher  class  shall  be  determined  on,  it  will  be  found  best  and  most  econom¬ 
ical  to  construct  them  expressly  for  the  purpose,  at  the  requisite  points  and 
according  to  the  most  suitable  plans.  Then,  also,  all  the  present  ungraded, 
will  be  needed  as  Primary  Schools,  to  meet  #>e  wants  of  a  fast  growing 
population  and  the  existing  tendency  towards  diminishing  the  number  of 
Pupils  in  each  single  School. 

It  may,  however,  happen,  in  some  instances  of  very  dense  rural  popula¬ 
tion,  that  the  Union  graded  system  shall  be  ultimately  contemplated.  In 
such  cases,  a  site  suitable  to  this  object  should,  by  all  means,  be  at  once 
selected,  and  such  plan  for  the  house  adopted,  as  shall  admit  of  addition  and 
adaptation  to  the  final  purpose,  without  unnecessary  alteration  or  expense. 

LOCATION  OF  TOWN  SCHOOLS. 

In  towns  and  cities,  the  selection  of  School  sites  is  more  controlled  by 
unbending  circumstances,  than  elsewhere.  The  difficulty  or  cost  of  obtain¬ 
ing  the  most  desirable  position,  often  compels  the  adoption  of  one  inferior 
in  every  respect.  Local  feelings,  not  unfrequently,  warp  the  selection  into 
an  improper  direction.  Still,  there  are  certain  requisites  which  should 
never  be  dispensed  with,  no  matter  what  the  cost  in  money  or  popularity. 

A  full  and  free  supply  of  air  is  indispensable.  This  can  only  be  com¬ 
manded  by  a  high,  airy  position  and  a  lot  of  sufficient  size  to  isolate  the 
building  from  contact,  or  even  close  proximity,  with  others.  This  point 
also  ensures  another  almost  equal  requisite :  that  of  sufficient  ground  for 
play  and  the  cultivation  of  flowers  and  trees. 

Centralness,  Accessibility,  and  the  requisites  included  in  the  term  Conve¬ 
nience,  are  less  applicable  to  town  than  to  country  schools.  But  size, 
Healthfulness,  Pleasantness,  and  Retirement,  should  equally  be  kept  in  view, 
in  the  choice  of  sites  for  both. 

Previous  to  the  location  of  town  Schools,  the  question  should  always  be 
settled,  whether  the  Union  graded,  or  the  Separate  graded  system  shall  be 
adopted.  If  the  former,  a  lot  as  central,  as  large,  and  as  healthful  as  possi¬ 
ble  should  at  one  be  procured; — keeping  also  in  view  the  other  requisites. 
But  here  there  is  often  danger  that  the  desire  to  show  off  a  fine  large  build¬ 
ing,  for  the  credit  of  the  town,  may  overlook  the  great  requisites  of  airiness, 
size  and  retirement.  This  feeling  should  be  striven  against.  It  is  true  the 
building  should  be  appropriate  and  beautiful ;  but  the  character  of  a  School 
must  emanate  from  the  interior  and  not  depend  on  outside  show. 


28 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


If  the  Separate  graded  system  be  adopted,  then  of  course,  a  School  of  the 
lowest  grade  will  be  placed,  centrally  and  on  sufficient  space,  in  each  of  the 
sub-divisions  of  the  town,  and  the  Grammar  or  High  School,  as  the  case  may 
be,  as  near  the  centre  as  practicable  and  expedient. 

In  dividing  a  town  into  Primary  districts,  the  middle  of  a  main  street 
should  always  be  made  the  line,  if  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  the  danger  in¬ 
curred  by  small  children  in  crossing  leading  thoroughfares ;  and,  if  a  rail¬ 
way  traverse  the  place,  the#iecessity  of  crossing  it,  except  on  a  bridge  or 
under  the  track,  ought  to  be  dispensed  with. 


On  the  whole,  the  selection  of  a  proper  School-house  site  is  an  act  involv¬ 
ing  many  and  mixed  considerations.  In  most  cases  all  that  can  be  effected 
by  the  most  careful  Board  of  Directors  or  Controllers,  will  be  the  avoidance 
of  gross  errors.  The  present  discussion  of  the  subject,  if  it  enable  them  to 
do  this,  will  not  have  been  in  vain  or  unprofitable. 

In  this  connection  the  question  presents  itself,  whether  the  proper  School 
authorities  should  not  be  permitted  to  appropriate  to  public  use  a  sufficient 
portion  of  ground  for  a  School-house,  at  every  point  where  they  determine  a 
School  to  be  requisite  ?  It  does  certainly  seem  strange  that  for  so  many  other 
public  purposes — ■  such  as  roads,  canals  and  railways,  and  even  in  favor  of 
several  corporations  —  this  right  should  be  given  as  a  matter  of  course ; 
and  yet  that  to  our  public  system  for  the  education  of  youth,  which  tran¬ 
scends  them  all  in  its  present  and  future  influence,  and  in  which  the  want 
of  this  power  often  leads  to  lasting  inconvenience  and  injury,  it  should  be 
denied. 

No  one,  of  course,  would  desire  to  see  private  right  unnecessarily  in¬ 
vaded,  even  in  favor  of  Common  Schools.  But  when  no  suitable  site  can 
be  procured  at  or  near  the  proper  point,  and  when  all  fair  offers  and  other 
means  have  failed  to  induce  owners  to  accommodate  the  public,  it  would 
seem  to  be  no  more  than  in  accordance  with  the  eminent  rights  and  duties 
involved,  and  no  unnecessary  infraction  of  private  property,  to  take  that 
which  is  so  much  needed ;  —  always  paying  the  full  value,  to  be  ascertained 
in  some  fair  and  public  manner,  prescribed  by  law. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


29 


III.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


ON  THE  SIZE,  FORM,  MATERIAL  AND  INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  GRADES  OF 
SCHOOL-HOUSES  REQUIRED  IN  RURAL  DISTRICTS;  WITH  DRAWINGS,  PLANS,  SPECIFICA¬ 
TIONS  AND  ESTIMATES  OF  EACH  KIND. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

Two  classes  of  building  are  now  required  in  country  Districts:  those 
for  ungraded  and  those  for  graded  Schools.  The  whole  tendency  of  the 
system  being  towards  the  ultimate  grading  of  the  Schools,  this  Manual  is 
prepared  in  reference  to  that  result ;  and  therefore,  in  presenting  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  plans  for  the  ungraded  Schools  of  the  present  day,  care  has  been 
taken  that  they  may  also  serve  for  primary  Schools,  when  the  gradation 
shall  have  taken  place.  Accord  in  gly,  this  chapter  is  divided  into  two 
parts ;  —  the  first  relating  to  ungraded  rural  Schools,  but  adapted  also  to  the 
primary  class ;  and  the  second  to  graded  rural  Schools,  which  are  really 
houses  for  the  higher  grades,  when  the  present  mixed  Schools  shall  assume, 
with  reference  to  them,  the  primary  rank. 

It  is,  however,  not  to  be  understood  that  none  of  the  plans  in  this  Manual 
are  proper  for  any  other  localities  than  those  herein  designated.  A  build¬ 
ing  of  the  graded  rural  class  may  be,  under  certain  circumstances,  quite 
suitable  for  a  large  ungraded  School ;  so,  one  included  among  the  town  series 
may  be  found  best  adapted  to  some  particular  rural  District,  and  vice  versa . 
All  that  is  designed  by  the  classification  here  adopted,  is  to  indicate  certain 
general  principles  of  adaptation,  and  to  secure  method  in  arrangement; 
leaving  to  the  judgment  of  Directors  full  opportunity  to  select,  according 
to  the  wants  of  each  District. 

The  following  general  remarks,  or  rather  principles,  are  not  only  applica¬ 
ble  to  both  classes  of  buildings  embraced  in  this  chapter,  but  to  most  of  the 
others  described  in  this  Manual. 

1.  The  size  of  a  School-room  should  be  regulated  by  the  number  of 
pupils  who  are  to  occupy  it.  The  teaching  room  in  the  first  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  plans  is  about  twenty-two  by  twenty-six  feet  and  thirteen  high. 
On  the  supposition  that  it  is  to  accommodate  fifty  persons  including  the 
Teacher,  (and  no  more  ought  to  be  put  into  it)  this  gives  about  eleven 


30 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


square  feet  of  floor  space  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air 
space,  to  each.  Less  should  never  be  allowed,  and  it  would  be  better  if 
more  were  given. 

2.  No  School  should  ever  be  erected  with  less  height  of  ceiling  than 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet.  Floor  space  may  be  cramped,  merely  to  the 
present  discomfort  of  the  occupant ;  but  breathing  room .  curtailed,  injures 
health. 

3.  In  determining  the  size  of  a  School  building,  allowance  should  always 
be  made  for  entries  or  vestibules  for  hats  and  cloaks,  closets  for  appara¬ 
tus  and  books,  sufficiently  wide  passages,  and  full  space  for  classes  at  reci¬ 
tation. 

4.  The  form  of  a  School-room  is  of  less  moment  than  its  size ;  yet  a  pro¬ 
per  form  is  important.  Some  prefer  a  perfect  square,  others  that  the  length 
should  be  a  third  or  a  fourth  greater  than  the  breadth ;  some  place  the 
Teacher’s  desk  at  one  end,  others  at  the  middle  of  the  longest  side.  Proba¬ 
bly  a  room  whose  breadth  is  one-fourth  less  than  its  length,  with  the 
Teacher’s  desk  at  one  end,  is  the  best  form.  This  keeps  the  whole  School 
in  front  and  in  view  of  the  Teacher,  and  gives  ample  space  across  the  end, 
before  his  desk,  for  classes. 

5.  The  material  of  the  building  must  be  decided  by  the  circumstances  of 
each  case.  The  house  may  serve  the  purpose  of  its  erection  whether  com¬ 
posed  of  brick,  stone  or  wood,  if  rightly  constructed.  Each  kind  has  its 
advantages.  Brick  and  stone  are  the  more  durable,  but  wood,  in  most 
places,  the  cheapest.  Probably,  if  attainable,  brick  houses  are  the  neatest, 
driest  and  most  suitable  in  all  respects,  and  stone  the  least  so.  Wooden 
School-houses  covered  with  plaster  are  never  very  desirable.  They  soon 
show  that  in  all  Schools  there  are  mischievous  children,  who  delight  in 
exposing  the  laths. 

6.  Every  School-hou^e  should  have  a  cellar.  This  not  only  renders  the 
floor  drier  and  the  house  more  healthful  and  comfortable,  but  saves  the  cost 
of  a  wood  or  coal  house.  In  the  event  of  heating  by  means  of  a  furnace, 
it  will  also  serve  an  admirable  purpose. 

7.  The  position  of  Pupils  with  regard  to  light,  is  of  much  importance. 
They  should  face  the  north  wall  of  the  room,  which  should  be  without  win¬ 
dows.  Thus  the  light  will  fall  agreeably  on  their  backs  or  sides,  without 
that  straining  effect  on  the  eye  which  a  front  light  produces. 

8.  The  windows  of  a  School-house  should  reach  near  to  the  ceiling,  and 
need  not  descend  so  near  the  floor,  as  in  a  dwelling  house.  Ventilation  and 
light  will  thus  be  increased,  and  currents  of  air  across  the  persons  of  the 
Pupils  avoided.  Besides,  School  windows  are  not  so  much  to  look  out  of, 
as  to  admit  air  and  light. 

9.  The  Teacher’s  desk  should  be  moveable,  and  on  a  raised  platform  of 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


31 


sixteen  inches  or  two  feet  high  and  four  feet  wide,  extending  entirely 
across  one  end  of  the  room.  This  platform  will  also  serve  for  declamation, 
black-board,  and  other  similar  exercises. 

10.  A  black-board,  or  other  dark  surface,  commencing  two  and  extending 
seven  feet  above  the  platform,  (i.  e.,  five  feet  in  height,)  should  be  placed 
across  the  end  of  the  room,  behind  the  Teacher’s  desk.  If  extended  all 
around  the  room,  so  much  the  better.  It  will  add  very  little  to  the  cost  ot 
the  building,  if  provided  for  in  the  original  contract,  and  it  will  vastly  facili¬ 
tate  the  competent  Teacher’s  instructions. 

11.  There  should  be  wide  doors  to  every  School-house,  so  as  to  give 
egress  to  the  occupants  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  in  case  of  emergency. 
If  a  door  composed  of  two  parts  or  valves  were  adopted,  this  object  would 
be  effected,  with  the  additional  advantage  of  being  able  to  use  both  in  sum¬ 
mer  to  admit  more  air,  and  only  one  in  winter  to  economize  heat. 

12.  After  selecting  any  plan  of  a  School-house  in  this  Manual,  instead  of 
writing  out  a  long  and  full  specification  of  it,  either  in  their  advertisement 
or  contract,  Directors  will  save  themselves  much  trouble  by  merely  re¬ 
ferring  to  the  plan,  by  its  number  and  page  in  this  Manual,  and  requiring 
the  contractor  to  bm Id  according  to  the  specifications  therein  found.  It 
changes  from  the  specifications  in  the  Manual  are  desired,  they  may  be 
briefly  notea  in  the  contract.  The  specifications  have  been  prepared  by  an 
experienced  and  skilful  School-house  Architect,  and  may  be  relied  on. 


PART  I. 

CLASS  1.  — No.  1. 

HOUSES  FOR  UNGRADED  OR  PRIMARY  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  following  is  a  view  of  the  cheapest  and  simplest  building  which  it 
has  been  thought  expedient  to  present.  It  will  accommodate  forty-eight 
Pupils  —  two  at  each  desk.  On  examining  the  annexed  plan  it  will  be 
found  that  though  the  house  built  after  it  will  be  plain  and  cheap,  it  will 
contain  all  the  essential  arrangements  and  features  of  a  good  School.  Larger 
dimensions  and  more  expensive  materials  and  finish  might  be  desirable,  in 
.point  of  good  taste  and  greater  convenience ;  but  there  is  nothing  absent, 
absolutely  required  to  good  teaching.  Neatly  painted  on  the  outside,  and 


32 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


well  white-washed  within,  cheap  and  unpretending  as  it  is,  this  building 
can  be  made  to  look  well. 


SPECIFICATION. 


This  plan  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a  School-house,  one  story  high, 
twenty-three  by  thirty-four  feet  on  the  outside ;  thirteen  feethigh  in  the 
clear  of  floor  and  ceiling,  and  pitch  of  roof  five  feet. 


rrr 


a.  Lobby  6  feet  square. 

b.  Clothes  room  for  girls,  6  by  7 

feet. 

c.  Clothes  room  for  boys,  same 

size. 

dd.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 
e.  Fire  place  and  for  stove. 
pf.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 
ggo.  Passages  16  inches  wide. 

h.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

i.  Space  for  classes  at  recitations. 

k.  Platform,  4  by  22  feet. 

l.  Teacher’s  desk. 

H.  Cellar  door. 


The  material  will  be  timber  framed  and  weather-boarded.  The  front 
elevation  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  drawing. 

EXCAVATION. 

A  cellar  will  be  excavated  under  the  building,  to  lie  seven  feet,  when 
finished,  between  floor  and  lower  edge  of  joists ;  a  cellar  door-way  likewise, 
and  trenches  for  the  foundations  will  lie  dug,  the  latter  four  inches  below  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


33 


cellar  floor ;  all  rubbish  and  surplus  earth  to  be  removed  or  graded  around 
the  building. 

MASONRY. 

The  walls  of  the  cellar  will  be  of  good  quarry  building  stone,  sixteen 
inches  thick,  and  those  of  the  cellar  door- way  fourteen  inches,  all  well  bedded 
in  lime  mortar,  and  the  inside  surface  well  dashed  with  the  same  material ; 
the  exterior  surface  of  the  wall  above  the  ground  will  be  pointed,  and  the 
whole  levelled  off  smoothly,  to  receive  the  wooden  sills. 

The  chimney  will  be  built  of  brick,  well  pargeted  on  the  inside,  and 
topped  out  the  usual  height  above  the  roof  with  straight  hard  brick,  and  the 
joints  smoothly  struck.  A  cellar  window  will  be  made  under  each  of  the 
upper  windows,  and  in  the  openings  a  cast  iron  guard  will  be  inserted, 
sufficiently  open  to  admit  air  and  light  into  the  cellar. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  sills  will  be  six  by  eight  inches,  of  white  oak ;  all  the  other  tim¬ 
bers  of  white  pine  or  hemlock;  corner  posts  four  by  six,  plates,  ties 
and  braces  four  by  five,  and  studding  three  by  four ;  flooring  joists  three 
by  twelve  inches,  backed,  with  half  an 
inch  crown,  and  two  lines  of  lattice  bridg¬ 
ing  well  secured  to  the  same;  the  ceiling 
joists  two  by  ten  inches  ;  the  rafters  to  be 
the  usual  cut,  and  joists,  studding  and 
rafters  to  be  placed  sixteen  inches  between 
centres;  the  rafters  to  be  well  nailed  at 
the  heel,  and  the  top  to  be  secured  by 
nailing  upright  boards  on  the  face  of  the 
rafters  and  ceiling  joists.  The  rafters  to  be  lathed  and  covered  with  the 
best  pine  shingles,  butted  and  jointed.  The  building  to  be  carefully 
framed  through,  and  draw  bored  and  pinned,  and  braces  dove-tailed  at  one 
end.  Ail  the  work  on  the  exterior,  viz :  eaves,  door  frame  and  door  and 
windows,  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  elevation  and  details  in  plate  No.  1, 
under  the  head  of  “  Architectural  Details,”  at  the  end  of  Class  IY,  in  this 
Manual.  The  weather-boarding  to  be  ploughed  and  over-dropped. 

WINDOWS. 

All  the  window  frames  will  be  made  casing  with  double  boxes ;  the 
sash  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  hung  with  the  best  axle  pulleys,  patent  sash, 
cord  and  weights,  and  secured  on  the  outside  with  shutters  one  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  made  in  pairs,  and  in  three  equal  panels,  sunken  on  one  side, 
and  bead  and  butt  on  the  other,  hung  with  strap  hinges,  and  fastened  with 
ten  inch  shutter  bolts,  and  secured  when  open  with  turn  buckles  well  screwed 
on  the  weather  boarding.  The  small  D  window  will  be  in  both  front  and 
back,  and  filled  in  with  slats  for  ventilators. 

5 


34 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


FLOORS. 

All  the  floors  will  he  of  heart  pine,  planed  and  grooved,  well  nailed  to 
the  joists  and  joint  shot. 

PARTITIONS 

Will  be  of  three  by  four  inch  scantling,  placed  sixteen  inches  between 
centres,  and  well  secured  to  door  and  ceiling. 

CASINGS  AND  MOULDINGS. 

The  door  jambs  will  be  cased  with  inch,  and  dnished  with  a  beaded  hang¬ 
ing  stile  three  inches  wide,  and  a  two  inch  moulding  covering  the  joints  of 
the  plastering ;  the  same  will  be  around  the  windows  on  the  inside.  The 
sides  of  the  School-room  will  be  wainscoted  the  height  of  the  window 
sills,  and  capped  on  a  line  with  the  same.  A  black-board,  or  other  black 
surface  to  be  approved  by  the  Directors,  will  be  placed  clear  across  the  end 
of  the  room  behind  the  Teacher’s  desk,  dve  feet  in  height  and  commencing 
two  feet  from  the  level  of  the  platform,  with  a  moulding  at  the  top  and 
ends,  and  a  ledge  for  chalk  at  the  bottom.  The  lobby  and  clothes-room 
will  be  skirted  with  wash-board  six  inches  wide,  the  top  edge  slightly 
beveled.  Closets  will  be  made  where  they  are  drawn,  and  fitted  up  with 
four  shelves  in  each .  Pin  rails  will  be  put  up  in  each  clothes-room,  and 
three  dozen  of  the  best  wardrobe  hooks  secured  on  the  rails  in  each. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  doors  will  be  made  one  and  three  fourth  inches  thick,  bead 
and  butt  on  the  inside,  four  panels,  and  moulded  on  the  outside ;  hung 
with  four  by  four  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  a  ten  inch  rim  knob  lock  of 
the  best  quality.  All  the  room  doors,  including  those  of  the  closets,  will  be 
one  and  a  fourth  inches  thick,  made  with  four  plain  raised  panels,  hung 
with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and  a  half  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  cot¬ 
tage  rim  knob  locks.  A  set  of  heart  pine  cellar  door-cheeks  and  sill,  and 
battoned  cellar  door  will  be  made,  and  hung  with  hooks  and  straps  and 
secured  with  hasp  and  padlock.  A  strong  rough  step  ladder  will  be  made, 
and  securely  placed  in  the  cellar  door- way ;  outside  wooden  steps  and  plat¬ 
form  will  be  made  to  the  entrance  door,  and  two  iron  scrapers  securely 
fixed  to  the  same.  A  platform  four  by  twenty-two  feet  and  eight  inch  rise 
will  be  made  for  the  Teacher’s  desk.  An  opening  will  made  in  the 
ceiling  eighteen  inches  diameter,  and  a  sliding  iron  register  inserted  in  the 
same  for  ventilation,  in  connection  with  the  D  windows.  The  lumber  to 
be  of  a  good  quality  and  thoroughly  seasoned ;  the  hardware  also  to  be  of 
a  good  quality,  including  nails,  screws,  bolts,  and  every  thing  necessary  to 
make  the  whole  complete. 

PLASTERING. 

The  walls,  partitions  and  ceilings  to  be  lathed  and  plastered  with  twro 
coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  one  of  hard  white  finish  ;  the  brown  mortar 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


35 


to  be  composed  of  fresh  wood  burnt  lime,  and  clean  sharp  sand,  well 
haired. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  will  be  painted  with  three  coats  of 
pure  white  lead,  and  best  linseed  oil,  and  finished  in  plain  colors,  as  the 
Directors  may  direct.  The  sash  to  be  all  glazed  with  the  best  American 
glass,  well  bedded,  sprigged  and  back  puttied.  The  size  of  the  glass  is 
twelve  by  sixteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  in  each  frame. 

PRIVIES  AND  FENCING. 

A  neat  and  commodious  privy  is  also  to  be  constructed,  divided  into 
two  compartments  by  a  plastered  petition ;  each  to  be  four  by  five  feet  in 
the  clear,  and  six  feet  high  at  the  entrance ;  to  be  framed  and  weather- 
boarded  vertically,  with  strips  well  nailed  over  the  joints,  and  roofed 
with  white  pine  shingles;  the  eaves  to  proje^  twelve  inches  all  around. 
The  doors  to  be  made  battoned,  hung  with  strap  hinges,  and  fastened  with 
latches ;  to  be  fitted  up  with  seats  to  accommodate  two  in  each  apartment ; 
the  floor,  seats  and  doors  to  be  planed.  A  well  six  feet  in  diameter  will  be 
dug,  twelve  feet  deep,  and  walled  in  with  four  inch  brick  work,  dry,  and 
squared  up  properly  to  receive  the  frame  work  of  the  privy.  Rough 
grooved  fencing  seven  feet  high  will  be  put  up  from  the  School-house  to 
the  privy  —  dividing  its  apartments ;  the  length  to  be  determined  by  the 
Directors.  All  the  materials  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workman¬ 
ship  of  the  different  parts  to  be  done  in  a  neat  and  substantial  manner,  and 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Directors  or  their  building  committee. 

ESTIMATE  OF  COST. 

Owing  to  the  great  diversity  in  the  price  of  material  and  labor  through¬ 
out  the  State,  the  average  cost  can  only  be  given;  and  from  calculations 
made  in  that  manner,  the  cost  of  this  plan  would  be  four  hundred  and  thirty 
dollars  without  a  cellar ;  or,  with  a  cellar  according  to  the  plan,  five  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  dollars. 


CLASS  I. —  No.  2. 

The  next  design  is  one  which  the  editor  of  this  Manual  prepared  and  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  School  Journal,  some  years  ago.  It  then  combined  all  the 
improvements  and  conveniences  which  his  observation  enabled  him  to  pre¬ 
sent.  Many  houses  of  the  same  class  have  since  been  visited,  but  none  have 
been  met  superior  to  it  in  all  respects.  The  only  change  since  perceived 


36 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


necessary,  is,  that  there  should  be  no  window  in  the  back  gable  end  of 
the  building,  which  should  be  placed  towards  the  north. 


Many  School-houses,  mostly  of  brick,  have  been  built  after  this  design, 
in  various  parts  of  the  State ;  and  it  is  believed  that  they  are  generally  ap¬ 
proved,  when  rightly  constructed  and  furnished. 


SPECIFICATION'. 


This  plan  is  about  the  capacity  of,  and  nearly  resembles  the  first  number 
of  this  class,  excepting  the  portico  on  the  front.  The  building  is  intended 
to  be  twenty-five  by  thirty  feet,  exclusive  of  the  portico,  with  the  same 
height  of  story  and  pitch  as  in  the  first. 


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a  Lobby  and  clothes  room,  5 
by  14  feet. 

b.  Passage  3  feet  wide. 

c.  Chimney. 

dd.  Platform  4  feet  wide,  two 
risers  of  8  in.  each. 

e.  Teacher’s  desk. 

f.  Room  for  apparatus  and  li¬ 

brary,  5  by  10  feet. 
g  A  portico  6  feet  wide. 


This  building  will  be  framed  with  the  same  kind  of  materials,  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  No.  1,  and  weather- boarded  in  the  same  manner. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


37 


.The  excavations  and  masonry  will  he  the  same,  excepting  that  founda¬ 
tions  of  the  portico  will  be  made  only  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  cellar  door  and  windows  will  be  made  as  in  the  preceding 
plan,  as  also  the  interior  carpenter  work,  including  black-board. 

The  portico  and  eave  will  be  made  according  to  the  elevation  and  details 
in  plate  No.*l,  “Architectural  Details.” 

The  plastering  and  glazing  the  same ;  the  size  of  the  glass  will  be  twelve 
by  sixteen  inches;  eighteen  lights  to  a  frame. 

A  well,  privy  and  fencing,  will  be  made  according  to  the  first  specification. 
And  all  material  and  workmanship  necessary  to  complete  the  building  in  a 
substantial  and  satisfactory  manner  will  be  required  of  the  contractor. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  average  cost  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan,  would  be  about 
equal  to  the  first,  and  would  be  set  down  as  in  the  former,  four  hundred  and 
thirty  dollars,  and  completed  as  in  the  specification  with  a  cellar,  five  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  dollars.  If  of  brick,  the  cost  will  be  accordingly,  and  the 
specification  must  be  varied  to  suit  the  change  of  material. 


CLASS  I.  — No.  3. 

This  plan  differs  little  from  No.  1,  of  this  series,  except  in  outward 
appearance  and  finish.  The  small  portico  is  a  handsome  and  useful  addition. 


38 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


SPECIFICATION. 

The  size  of  this  building  is  also  twenty-three  by  thirty-four  feet,  one  story 
high,  thirteen  feet  in  the  clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  nine  feet.  The  interior 
arrangements  resemble  the  first  somewhat,  excepting  that  in  this  an  out¬ 
side  lobby  is  made  at  the  entrance,  which  gives  an  additional  room,  ap¬ 
propriated  for  library  and  recitation. 

a.  Lobby  or  outside  porch,  5 
by  6  feet. 

b.  Recitation  or  Teacher’s 
room,  8  by  8  feet. 

o.  Girls’ clothes  room.  6  by  8  ft. 
d.  Boys’  clothes  room, 6  by  8  ft. 
ff.  One  a  smoke  flue,  the  other 
a  ventilator  brought  to¬ 
gether  in  the  loft  and  top¬ 
ped  out  together. 
g.  Teacher’s  desk  on  a  plat¬ 
form,  4  by  22  feet. 
hh.  Seats  for  two  Pupils, 
i.  Library. 

m.  Entrance  to  the  cellar, 
s.  Passages  or  aisles. 

In  giving  the  specification  for  this  plan,  the  difference  between  this  and 
the  first,  only,  will  be  described,  as  follows,  viz : 


In  framing  this  building,  it  will  he  done  so  that  the  weather-boarding 
can  be  put  on  vertically,  otherwise  it  is  similar  to  the  first,  the  sizes  of  the 
timbers  all  being  the  same.  The  rafters  will  be  twenty  inches  between 
centres,  with  a  collar  beam  of  one  and  a  half  inch  plank,  well  spiked  across 
each,  and  the  heel  of  the  rafter  notched  out  to  rest  upon  the  plate ;  the 

front  part  projecting  and  forming  the 
support  to  the  eave,  and  that  portion 
of  the  rafter  will  be  planed,  as  will  also 
the  projecting  pieces  supporting  the 
roof  at  the  gables.  For  detail  draw¬ 
ings  of  the  eave  and  front  porch,  see 
plate  No.  1,  “Architectural  Details.” 
The  weather-boarding  will  be  planed, 
and  beveled,  and  strips  three  inches 
wide  firmly  nailed  over  the  joints. 

The  carpenter  work,  including  blaek- 

_  f  board,  will  be  the  same,  excepting 

where  the  change  in  the  plan  makes  it  necessary  ;  and  the  materials  also  of 
the  best  cpiality.  The  masonry  will  also  be  as  the  first,  with  the  same  ar¬ 
rangement  of  cellar  windows  and  cellar  entrance  ;  the  plastering  also  in  like 
manner;  the  painting  also  the  same,  with  glass  of  the  same  size  and  num- 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


39 


ber  in  each  frame.  A  well  and  privy,  also  fencing,  and  all  complete  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  committee,  according  to  specification  of  No.  1,  of  this 
class. 

ESTIMATE. 

A  building  after  this  plan  would  cost  four  hundred  and  eighty  dollars 
without  a  cellar;  with  one,  according  to  the  specification,  six  hundred 
dollars. 


-  CLASS  I.  —  No.  4. 

In  size  this  resembles  Nos.  1  and  3,  but  differs  very  considerably  in  the 
interior  arrangement.  It  is  designed  for  forty-six  Pupils,  but  can  be  ar¬ 
ranged  for  forty-eight  or  fifty.  Being  of  stone  and  more  substantially  built, 
and  better  finished,  it  will  cost  more  than  the  preceding  houses. 


The  artist  has  provided  a  separate  entrance  for  each  sex,  though  they 
are  to  sit  together  in  the  same  study  room.  This  seems  unnecessary. 
Probably  a  window  had  better  be  placed  instead  of  the  boys’  door,  and  the 
room  into  which  it  leads  be  thus  rendered  more  retired  and  useful  for  recita¬ 
tion,  &c. 


40 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


SPECIFICATION  OF  MATERIALS  AND  WORKMANSHIP. 

The  size  is  twenty-three  by  thirty-four  feet,  and  pitch  of  roof  eleven  feet ; 
the  story  twelve  feet  in  height  in  the  clear,  with  a  side  porch ;  the  walls 
will  be  of  undressed  stone. 


a.  Outside  porch  & 
girls’  entrance. 
B.  Boys’  entrance. 

c.  Boys’  clothes 
room. 

d.  Girls’  clothes  & 
recitation  room. 

e.  Teacher’s  desk 
on  a  platform, 
4  by  9  feet. 

f.  Seats  for  two  pu¬ 

pils  each. 

g.  Passage  2  feet 

wide. 

ii.  Library. 
k.  Chimney  flue. 

E.  Cellar  entrance, 
v.  Ventilator. 


EXCAVATION. 

The  cellar  will  be  excavated  under  the  building,  as  in  the  preceding  ones, 
with  entrance,  &c.,  and  foundation  trenches  for  the  porch  two  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

CUT  STONE. 

Two  hammer-dressed  stone  sills  will  be  required  for  the  porch  and  end 
door,  twelve  inches  wide  on  the  top,  and  eight  inches  rise. 

MASONRY. 

All  the  walls  will  be  built  of  the  best  building  stone  that  can  be  procured 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  laid  upon  their  broadest  beds ;  up  to  the  level  of 
the  flooring  joists,  the  walls  will  be  twenty  inches  thick,  and  from  that 
level,  sixteen  inches ;  the  jambs  of  the  doors  and  windows  will  be  flared 
as  shown  in  the  drawings,  in  plate  No.  1,  “Architectural  Details.” 

The  cellar  windows  and  door-way  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  first  plan, 
and  all  the  inside  of  the  walls  will  be  well  dashed  with  mortar;  where 
necessary  in  forming  the  flues,  well  burnt  brick  will  be  used,  and  the  same 
topped  out  with  straight  hard  brick,  with  joints  smoothly  struck,  and  built 
in  accordance  with  the  drawings.  The  battlements  of  the  gables  will  be 
covered  with  slate. 

All  the  exterior  will  be  rough  casted  and  finished  with  a  pebble  dashed 
coating.  The  inside  walls  will  be  plastered  without  lathing,  and  the  par¬ 
titions  and  ceiling  will  be  done  as  in  the  preceding  plans.  The  inside 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


41 


jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  plastered  and  the  angles  rounded.  The  mortar 
for  the  whole  to  be  carefully  prepared  with  clean  sharp  sand  and  wood 
burnt  lime,  and  that  for  the  inside  to  be  well  haired. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  timbers  for  the  floors,  ceilings  and  roof  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  first 
plan,  and  rafters  made  with  collar  beams  as  in  the  last,  the  heels  to  lie  secured 
to  the  wall  plates,  well  bedded  in  mortar ;  rafters  lathed  and  covered  in  with 
shingles  as  before  mentioned,  or  if  the  article  is  convenient,  with  the  best 
American  slate,  put  on  with  composition  nails,  two  in  each  slate ;  in  both 
cases  the  battlements  to  be  secured  with  tin  flushings  and  covered  with  slate. 

The  window  frames  will  be  made  of  scantling,  sashes  one  a  half  inches 
thick,  and  hinged  with  three  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  spring  latches; 
inside  shutters  will  be  made  in  two  folds  to  each  jamb,  (in  the  large  frames,) 
one  inch  thick,  in  three  plain  panels,  and  hung  with  three  inch  butts  to 
fold  against  the  jamb;  the  shutters  to  be  fastened  with  hooks. 

The  eaves,  windows  and  porch,  to  be  made  according  to  detailed  draw¬ 
ings,  in  plate  1,  “  Architectural  Details.”  The  floors,  partitions,  casings, 
mouldings,  wainscoting,  cellar  and  door  fixtures,  Teacher’s  platform,  black¬ 
board  and  inside  door,  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  plans ;  the  out¬ 
side  doors  will  be  of  grooved  boards,  double  thickness,  and  put  together 
with  wrought  nails,  and  hung  and  secured  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
foregoing  plans. 

The  platforms  to  the  out¬ 
side  doors  will  be  of  wood, 
with  2  iron  scrapers  secured 
to  the  same.  The  library 
will  be  shelved  and  finished 
with  inch  panel  doors,  pro¬ 
perly  hinged,  and  secured 
with  cupboard  locks. 

The  ventiduct  will  be  of 
inch  boards,  planed  on  the 
inside,  made  air-tight  and 
secured  in  the  partition, 
with  openings,  top  and  bot¬ 
tom,  into  the  same,  and  co¬ 
vers  to  the  same,  to  be  continued  to  one  of  the  smoke  flues,  intended  to 
be  used  as  a  ventilator ;  the  ventiduct  to  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  by 
twenty-four  in  the  clear. 

The  painting  and  glazing  will  be  as  in  the  preceding  plans.  The  size 
of  the  glass  will  be  twelve  by  eighteen  inches,  and  four  lights  high. 

C 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


A'l 


All  the  materials  and  workmanship  to  be  of  the  best  quality ;  arid  any 
article  not  mentioned  in  the  above  specification,  will  be  made  alter  the  plan 
and  fashion  of  No.  1,  which  includes  the  privies  and  fencing. 

ESTIMATE. 

A  building  according  to  this  plan  without  a  cellar  would  cost  six  hundred 
dollars ;  with  a  cellar,  complete  as  in  the  specification,  seven  hundred  and 
twenty  dollars. 


CLASS  I.-No.  5. 

This  building  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  preceding  ones,  and  the  main 
room  will  conveniently  seat  seventy  Pupils.  It  will  therefore  be  proper 
for  a  School  with  an  assistant  Teacher,  for  which  purpose  the  class  rooms 
will  1  >e  found  very  convenient.  The  extension  of  the  platform  clear  across 
the  back  or  north  end  of  the  main  room,  and  the  leaving  of  a  greater  space 
in  front  of  the  Teacher’s  desk,  will  probably  be  an  improvement  of  the  plan 
as  prepared  by  the  Architect. 


This  size  and  description  of  School-house  will  be  proper  for  a  thickly 
settled  rural  vicinity  or  for  a  small  village,  with  sixty  or  seventy  pupils  of 
all  grades.  In  such  places  there  are  often  too  many  Pupils  for  one,  and  not 
enough  for  two  separate  Schools.  A  large  room  with  a  principal  and  an 


CONSTRUCTION  01?  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


43 


assistant  Teacher,  will  just  meet  the  wants  of  such  a  case.  In  this  way, 
at  little  increased  expense,  the  Pupils  can  all.  he  thoroughly  classified,  and 
most  of  the  advantages  of  graded  Schools  secured,  under  one  roof  and  at 
less  expense  for  instruction.  By  the  provision  of  a  separate  dcor  for  each 
of  the  sexes,  it  is  not  intended  that  the  boys  and  girls  shall  be  separated 
in  forming  the  classes.  Whatever  advantages  there  are,  if  there  be  any,  in 
the  separation  of  the  sexes  in  teaching,  certainly  they  are  not  so  great  as 
to  overbalance  the  injury  caused  by  the  unnecessary  multiplication  of  classes. 


a&.  Entrance  for  Boys  and 
Gills. 

cc.  Closets  for  books,  maps,&c. 
dJ.  Clothes  rooms  and  for  re* 
citation  9  by  12  feet. 

e.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
Jf.  Flues,  one  for  a  ventiduct, 
the  other  for  smoke. 

g.  Teacher’s  de.'k  on  a  plat-' 
form,  4  by  13  feet. 

A.  Passage  two  feet  wide. 
k.  Open  fire  place. 
m.  Entrance  to  the  cellar. 


r 


The  size  of  this  building  is  thirty  by  forty  feet  on  the  outside,  story  thir¬ 
teen  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  twelve  feet.  This  plan  re¬ 
quires  no  specification. 

It  is  a  frame  building, 
weather  -  hoarded  verti¬ 
cally,  and  framed  and 
finished  generally  like 
No.  2,  first  class.  The 
only  difference  between 
them  will  be  in  the 
eave  and  outside  finish  of 
door  and  window  heads, 
the  drawing  of  which 
will  be  found  in  plate 
No.  1,  “  Architectural 

Details.” 


44 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan  would  be,  without  a  cellar, 
seven  hundred  dollars ;  with  a  cellar  complete,  eight  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 


CLASS  I.-No.  6  . 

The  drawings  and  plan  now  presented  are  far  a  building  of  less  size  but 
more  substantial  material  and  better  finish,  and  consequently  of  greater 
cost,  than  the  last.  It  is  laid  out  for  sixty-four  Pupils,  none  of  whom  should 
he  seated  on  each  side  of  the  Teacher,  where  the  extended  platform  and 
black-board  ought  always  to  be. 

This  building,  while  it  contains  all  the  requisites  for  a  complete  primary 
School,  presents  a  chaste  and  beautiful  outside  appearance.  Embowered  in 
trees  and  surrounded  with  flowers,  it  will  ornament  any  situation ;  and 
after  the  Schools  shall  have  been  regularly  graded,  shell  a  School-house  will 
continue,  for  generations,  to  be  a  fitting  and  attractive  place  of  resort  for 
early  childhood. 


SPECIFICATION. 


Tim  size  of  this  building  is  twenty-six  by  forty  feet  on  the  outside,  thir¬ 
teen  feet  high  in  tire  clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  six  feet. 

This  plan  will  require  material  differing  very  little  from  No.  3,  both 
buildings  being  stone,  but  the  style  being  unlike  the  other,  it  will  be  neces- 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


45 


sary  to  make  some  changes  in  the  manner  of  work,  which  will  be  here 
noted,  and  any  changes  which  may  be  required  in  the  material  likewise. 


a.  Entrance  to  School  room. 

b.  Inside  lobby,  5  by  8  feet. 

c.  Clothes  room  for  Girls,  7  by  9  feet. 

d.  Clothes  room  for  Boys,  7  by  9  feet. 

e.  Closet  for  Books,  &c. 

ff.  Flues,  one  for  a  ventilator  the  other  for 
smoke. 

fc.  Teacher’s  desk  and  platform,  5  by  9  feet. 

l.  Seats  for  two  pupils  each. 

m.  Entrance  to  the  cellar. 


1  'J 

Jjja  *“0 

Pf33  *  HI 

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DD 

,-4 

l _ .'wV.  ■. 

□  GDC 

□  GDC 

ID 

n  0f 

1  _j  •' 

ID  3 

i  .  J  ‘ ■: _ _ i 

SCHOOL  or  0ES/GM  SC. 


The  excavations  will  be  the  same.  The  cellar  walls  will  be  the  same 
thickness  up  to  the  line  of  the  base,  and  above  likewise,  excepting  that  the 
pilasters  will  project  two  inches,  making  them  eighteen  inches  thick.  The 
walls  will  be  dashed  on  the  inside,  but  on  the  outside  they  will  be  rough¬ 
casted  in  a  complete  manner,  and  laid  off  in  blocks,  in  imitation  of  cut 
stone.  The  mortar  to  be  of  clean,  sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime.  The 
plastering  of  the  interior  will  be  done  as  in  No.  3,  including  the  plastering 
of  the  window  jambs  and  rounding  of  the  angles.  A  cut  stone  door  sill 
will  be  required  for  the  front  door,  twelve  inches  on  the  top  face,  eight 
inches  rise. 


CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  timbers  will  be  the  same  sizes  as  in  No.  3,  and  laid  and  secured  in 
the  same  manner ;  the  rafters  will  be  heeled  against  a  raising  piece, 
and  every  third  one  will 
project  to  form  supports 
for  the  eave,  and  will  be 
smoothly  dressed.  Canti¬ 
levers  will  be  framed  into 
the  outer  rafters,  to  sup¬ 
port  the  barge  over  the 
gables.  The  rafters  will 
be  boarded  and  prepared 
for  metal  covering.  A 
cupola  will  be  made  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  plan,  and  well  secured  on  the  roof,  —  it  will  be  prepared  for 
a  bell,  and  also  arranged  for  a  ventilator,  and  will  be  put  in  connection  with 
the  ventiduct.  The  cupola,  pent  house  over  the  front  door  and  eave,  to  be 
according  to  plates  Nos.  2  &  3,  “  Architectural  Details.”  The  window  frames 
will  be  made  plank  front  or  casing,  and  all  double  boxed ;  sash  one  and  a  half 


46 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


inches  thick  and  hung  with  the  best  axle  pulleys,  cord  and  weights.  Shut¬ 
ters  will  be  made  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  bead  and  butt  on  one  side, 
flat  panel  and  moulding  on  the  other,  hung  with  straps  and  hooks,  and  se¬ 
cured  with  ten  inch  shutter  bolts;  the  sub-sills  will  be  of  heait  pine.  The 
floors,  wainscoting,  jambs  and  dressing  of  doors,  closets,  platform,  black¬ 
board,  outside  steps,  cellar  door  and  steps,  will  be  as  in  the  preceding  plans. 
Slats  or  rails  four  inches  wide,  for  hooks  or  pins  to  suspend  maps,  &c,.  will 
be  inserted  round  the  inside  wall,  at  such  height  as  the  Directors  shall  order. 
A  ventiduct  will  be  made  eight  by  twenty-four  inches  in  the  clear,  inserted 
in  the  wall,  smoothly  plastered  on  the  inside,  and  prepared  with  grounds  to 
receive  the  front  of  the  duct,  which  will  be  of  sound  inch  boards  screwed 
firmly  against  the  grounds  before  mentioned ;  openings  will  be  made  top 
and  bottom  with  covers  to  each,  made  to  shut  at  pleasure.  The  duct  will 
be  continued  over  to  the  cupola  and  connected  with  it  in  ihe  loft,  the  joints 
made  air-tight.  A  section  under  the  head  of  “Ventilation,”  will  explain 
the  working  of  the  ventiducts. 

TIN  ROOFING. 

The  roof,  cupola  and  pent  house  over  the  front  door,  will  be  overlaid 
with  the  best  cross  leade  1  tin,  put  on  standing  grooves,  and  well  cleated  to 
the  boards,  to  be  painted  on  the  upper  side  two  coats,  the  first  coat  to  be 
red  lead. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted,  will  be  painted  three  coats  of  pure 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  and  finished  in  plain  colors  as  directed.  All 
the  sash  to  be  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded,  bradded 
and  puttied.  The  size  to  be  twelve  by  sixteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  in 
each  frame. 

The  building  will  be  finished  complete  in  every  particular,  according  to 
this  specification,  or  references  to  the  preceding  ones ;  and  all  the  materials 
are  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  to  be  done  in  a  substan¬ 
tial  and  workmanlike  manner. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  average  cost  of  this  building  would  be  nine  hundred  dollars  without 

o  o 

a  cellar ;  completed  with  one,  according  to  this  specification,  it  would  be 
one  thousand  and  fifty  dollars. 


CLASS  I.  —  No.  7 . 

This  plan  differs  very  little  except  in  material  and  cost,  from  No.  5.  By 
placing  seats  opposite  the  flues,  if  required,  it  will  contain  the  same  number 
of  Pupils,  and  will  suit  the  same  kind  of  School.  The  platform  and  black- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES 


47 


board  should,  by  all  means,  be  extcnled  to  the  book  closets,  on  each  side 
of  the  Teacher’s  desk,  in  the  places  of  the  two  seats  for  four  Pupils  each. 
Like  No.  5,  this  building  will  be  found  convenient,  substantial  and  highly 
ornamental,  with  proper  surroundings  and  embellishments. 


The  size  of  this  building  is  thirty  by  forty  feet  on  the  outside,  story 
thirteen  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  nine  feet.  A  specifica/- 
tion  will  be  given  only  where  it  differs  from  the  preceding  plans,  the  inte¬ 
rior  arrangements  and  style' of  work  being  nearly  the  same. 

a.  Lobby  and  entrance  for  both  sexes. 

b.  Boys’  clothes  room  to  bo  used  for  recita¬ 

tion,  8  by  10  feet. 

c.  Girls’  clothes  room  to  be  used  for  recita¬ 

tion,  8  by  10  feet. 

d.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

e.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 
ff.  Flues,  one  intended  for  smoke,  and  the 

other  for  ventilation. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk  on  a  platform  5  by  8  feet. 

h.  Closet  for  books,  &c. 
k.  Seats  for  four  Pupils  each. 
m.  Entrance  to  the  cellar. 


SPECIFICATION. 

The  materials  of  the  walls  will  be  brick  ;  the  excavations  will  be  the  same 
as  in  the  last,  and  the  cellar  walls  built  up  to  the  level  of  the  ground, 
eighteen  inches  thick,  with  cellar  door-way,  and  window  openings  secured 
wdth  iron  guards.  A  cut  stone  door  sill  will  be  required  for  the  front  door, 


□□□  □□□ 

E3  □□□□  00  D 
0000  □□ 0 
□  00  ,□□□ 


48 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


twelve  inches  on  the  top  face  and  eight  inches  rise.  The  walls  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground  upwards  will  be  of  brick  ;  the  outside  four  inches,  to 
be  the  best  cpiality  dark  stretchers  with  the  jjints  smoothly  struck  ;  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  base  and  pilasters  will  be  sixteen  inches;  in 
the  recesses  twelve  inches,  being  a  nine  inch  wall  spread  on  the  base, 
making  an  opening  of  three  inches  in  the  centre  of  the  wall ;  the  two  sur¬ 
faces  to  be  bonded  together  with  alternate  headers  every  fifth  course  ;  the 
projection  of  the  base  to  be  finished  on  the  top  with  headers.  The  flues 
will  be  made  eight  by  twenty-four  inches,  thoroughly  and  smoothly  par¬ 
geted  and  topped  out  on  the  roof  for  ventilators.  The  work  to  be  done  in 
a  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner,  with  mortar  composed  of  clean, 
sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime.  Plastering  on  the  interior  will  be  done 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  last ;  the  jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  plastered 
and  the  angles  rounded. 


CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  1  e  eight  by  fourteen  inches,  and  ceiling  joists  two 
by  twelve,  placed  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  and  the  flooring  joists 
strengthened  with  two  lines  of  lattice  bridging,  well  secured  to  the  same ; 
a  raising  piece  will  be  spiked  on  the  ceiling  joists,  and  the  rafters  heeled 
against  it ;  alternately  the  rafters  will  be  continued  over  the  wall,  forming 
cantilevers  to  support  the  eaves;  those  from  the  gables  will  be  framed  into 
the  outer  rafter.  The  rafters  wall  be  framed,  and  one  and  a  half  inch 
plank  collar  beams  well  spiked  across  the  same.  The  rafters  will  be  lathed 
and  covered  with  the  best  white  pine  shingles,  butted  and  jointed.  A  bell 

turret  will  be  built  according 
to  detail  drawings  in  plate 
No.  2,  “Architectural  De¬ 
tails,”  where  pians  will  be 
found  for  the  eave  and  front 
porch.  The  window  frames 
will  be  made  plank  front  or 
casing,  and  double  hung.  The 
sash  and  shutters  to  be  made 
and  hung  as  before  described, 
on  the  flank  and  back  of  the 
building;  but  on  the  front, 
inside  shutters  in  one  pair  to 


each  window,  will  be  made  and  hung  to  open  against  the  wall,  and  recesses 
in  wall  will  be  made  to  receive  them ;  the  sub-sills  of  the  windows  will  be 
made  of  heart  pine.  A  circular  transom  sash  will  be  made  over  the  front 
door.  The  doors  will  be  made  and  secured  as  in  the  preceding  plans,  ex- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


49. 


ccpting  that  in  the  partition  between  the  lobby  and  clothes  rooms,  folding 
doors  will  be  made  and  hung,  so  that  they  may  be  opened  into  one  room,  for 
recitation  or  class  purposes.  The  closets  will  be  shelved  in  the  usual  man¬ 
ner,  and  the  platform  for  the  Teacher’s  desk  made  with  eight  inch  rise. 
Wainscoting,  black-board,  inside  dressings  and  jambs  of  doors,  pinrails  and 
hooks  in  recitation  rooms,  rails  in  main  room  for  maps,  cellar  door  and  steps, 
and  outside  steps  (of  wood,)  and  privy  and  fencing,  will  be  done  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  before  fully  described. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

The  wood  work  usually  painted,  will  receive  three  coats  in  plain  colors, 
with  pure  white  lead  and  linseed  oil.  The  sash  all  to  be  glazed  with  the 
best  American  glass ;  the  size  of  the  glass  will  be  thirteen  by  sixteen  inches, 
eighteen  lights  in  each  frame  on  the  side  and  back ;  the  front  frames  to 
have  twelve  lights  in  each.. 

All  the  materials  and  workmanship  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  every 
thing  to  be  furnished,  requisite  to  complete  the  building  in  all  its  parts,  in 
a  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  build 
ing  committee. 

ESTIMATE. 

A  building  according  to  this  plan,  would  cost  nine  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars  without  the  cellar;  or  eleven  hundred  dollars  with  a  cellar  complete, 
as  in  the  specification. 


PART  II. 

HOUSES  FOR  GRADED  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

Though  the  buildings  embraced  in  this  class  are  intended  for  graded 
Schools  in  the  country,  yet  it  is  not  supposed  that  the  strict  principles  of 
gradation  - —  that  is,  the  assignment  to  the  same  Teacher  of  none  but  Pupils 
of  a  similar  grade  of  studies  —  can  be  as  fully  adhered  to  in  the  country  as 
in  towns.  Nor  is  it  expected  that  these  Schools  will  be  placed  in  none  but 
strictly  rural  positions.  On  the  contrary,  as  near  an  approach  to  distinct 
gradation  as  the  circumstances  of  each  case  will  admit  of,  is  all  that  can  be 
expected  or  should  be  attempted,  in  the  rural  Districts.  Hence,  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  two  or  more  Teachers  in  the  same  building  —  one  acting  as  Prin¬ 
cipal,  and  each  having  charge  of  a  particular  grade  or  class  of  studies  — 

will  be  the  best  that  can  be  effected,  in  cases  where  not  more  than  one 

7 


50 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


hundred  Pupils  of  all  ages  can  be  collected  at  the  same  point.  And,  as 
such  points  "will  frequently  be  near  villages  and  small  towns,  those  places 
will  naturally  become  the  sites  of  many  houses  of  this  class.  Still,  these 
buildings  have  been  so  arranged,  that,  when  increased  population  and  im¬ 
proved  educational  feeling,  shall  require  distinct  Grammar  Schools  in  the 
rural  Districts,  they  will  be  found  entirely  suitable  for  that  purpose.  In 
that  event,  if  the  separation  of  the  sexes  be  thought  advisable,  the  division 
of  each  building  into  two  rooms  provides  one  for  each  sex ;  or,  if  males  and 
females  shall  be  instructed  together,  then  one  room  may  be  appropriated  to 
the  first  and  the  other  to  the  second  division,  of  the  Grammar  School. 

The  one-story  form  of  building  has  been  adopted  throughout  this  and  the 
preceding  class.  In  towns,  where  ground  space  is  scarce,  it  is  frequently 
unavoidable  that  Schools  should  be  piled  one  over  the  other,  in  two,  three 
or  even  four  story  edifices.  But  in  the  country  and  in  villages,  where  no 
such  necessity  exists,  it  will  be  found  that  readiness  of  access,  the  prevention  of 
accidents  on  long  narrow  stairs,  and  the  avoidance  of  noise  overhead  and  of 
confusion  on  stairways  and  in  entries,  will  all  be  promoted  by  the  adoption  of 
the  plain,  neat  and  pleasant  one-story  School-house.  At  first  sight  it  might 
also  appear  that,  in  the  matter  of  cost,  the  saving  in  the  items  of  roofing 
and  cellar  is  considerable  in  houses  of  two  or  more  stories;  but  when  the 
expense  of  stairways  and  entries  and  of  the  increased  thickness  of  the  walls 
is  fully  considered,  little  if  any  difference  will  be  found  to  exist  in  this 
respect. 


CLASS  II.  — No.  1. 

This  is  a  plan  for  a  School  in  what  may  be  called  the  transition  state 
from  the  ungraded  to  the  graded  system ;  and  with  slight  modifications  it 
will  be  found  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  window  at  the  back 
of  the  Teacher’s  desk  should  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  platform  and  black¬ 
board  extended  to  the  other  windows  on  each  side  of  it.  These  windows, 
if  darkened  by  means  of  a  blind  or  curtain,  will  admit  no  light  injurious  to 
the  Pupils’-  eyes. 

The  study  room,  thus  arranged,  will  accommodate  seventy-two  Pupils  — 
quite  enough  to  employ  all  the  time  and  energies  of  two  Teachers  — *  a  prin¬ 
cipal  and  an  assistant.  While  one  of  these  is  engaged  with  classes  in  the 
recitation  room,  which  should  also  be  provided  with  ample  black-board, 
the  other  may  be  hearing  recitations  and  keeping  order  in  the  study  room, 
and  thus  both  be  usefully  employed  without  interrupting  each  other.  When 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


51 


necessary,  all  the  Pupils  can  be  conveniently  assembled,  for  general  instruc¬ 
tion  or  exercises  in  the  main  room. 


Next  to  the  entire  separation  of  the  Schools  into  distinct  grades,  this  is, 
probably  the  best  arrangement  that  can  be  made.  Without  separating  the 
sexes  during  study  and  recitation,  it  provides  different  entrances  and  those 
other  conveniences,  so  requisite  to  the  proper  training  and  habits  of  each. 


SPECIFICATION'. 

This  plan  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a  School-house,  one  story  high 
but  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  preceding  plans.  It  is  the  first  of  the 
second  class,  and  a  full  specification  is  given. 


a.  Boys’  entrance  and  clothes 

room,  6  by  11  feet. 

b.  Girls’  entrance  and  clothes 

room,  6  by  11  feet, 
o.  Teacher’s  desk  on  a  platform, 

4  by  15  feet. 

d.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

e.  Centre  passage  2  feet  6  inches 
wide,  the  others  1ft.  6  in.  wide. 

F.  Class-room  7  by  20  feet. 
gg.  Closets  for  hooks,  &c. 
ii.  Smoke  flues. 
k.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each, 
t.  Entrance  to  the  cellar, 
v.  Ventilators,  8  by  20  inches. 

The  material  will  be  of 
outside,  the  story  fourteen 
of  roof  ten  feet. 


stone,  the  dimensions  thirty  by  fifty  feec  on  the 
feet  high  in  the  clear  of  floor  and  ceiling  ;  pitch 


52 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


EXCAVATIONS. 

A  cellar  will  be  dug  under  the  whole  building,  seven  feet  deep  in  the 
clear  of  floor  and  lower  edge  of  joists ;  a  cellar  door-way  will  be  made,  and 
trenches  for  the  foundation  of  the  walls  six  inches  below  the  cellar  level ; 
a  circular  well  for  a  privy  six  feet  in  diameter  and  twelve  feet  deep  will 
be  dug,  and  a  four  inch  wall  of  hard  brick  built  up  dry  around  the  same. 
The  surplus  earth,  not  required  for  leveling  and  the  rubbish  accumulated 
about  the  building,  will  be  removed  to  such  suitable  place  beyond  the  same, 
as  may  be  directed. 

MASONRY. 

The  walls  will  be  of  a  good  quality  of  building  stone,  laid  on  their  broadest 
beds,  and  solidly  bedded  in  mortar  with  a  coating  of  the  same  under  the 
foundation  course.  Up  to  the  top  of  the  base  line,  the  walls  will  be  twenty 
inches  thick,  and  from  the  base  upwards  sixteen  inches  ;  in  the  cellar  door¬ 
way  fourteen  inches  will  be  sufficient.  The  base  around  the  building  will 
be  pointed,  and  the  other  portion  of  the  exterior  will  be  rough-cast,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  projections  around  the  windows  and  doors,  which  will  be  of  the 
best  rubbed  stretchers  or  pressed  brick,  laid  close  and  the  joints  smoothly 
struck.  The  smoke  flues  will  be  thoroughly  pargeted  and  topped  out  with 
straight  hard  brick ;  the  inside  face  of  the  wall  to  be  well  dashed  with 
mortar ;  the  cellar  windows  will  be  made  under  those  of  the  first  story, 
with  open  cast  iron  guards,  to  admit  light  and  air  into  the  cellar. 

CUT  STONE. 

The  sills  of  the  doors  and  windows  of  the  first  story  will  be  of  hammer 
dressed  stone ;  those  of  the  doors  eight  by  eighteen  inches,  and  windows 
six  by  six  inches  of  suitable  lengths  for  the  openings. 

PLASTERING. 

The  walls,  partitions  and  ceilings  will  be  lathed  and  plastered  with  two 
coats  of  brown  mortar  and  one  of  hard  white  finish ;  the  exterior  surface 
of  the  walls  will  be  rough-cast,  in  accordance  with  the  elevation,  excepting 
the  window  and  door  architraves  and  chimney  tops,  which  will  be  brick, 
and  colored  in  imitation  of  the  other  portions  of  the  building.  The  mor¬ 
tar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  and  good  lime ;  that  of  the  interior 
to  be  well  haired ;  the  jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  plastered  and  the 
angles  rounded. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  and  the  ceiling  joists 
two  by  ten,  placed  sixteen  inches  between  centres ;  the  flooring  joists  to  be 
backed  with  three-fourths  of  an  inch  crown,  and  two  lines  of  cross  bridg¬ 
ing  well  secured  through  the  same.  The  rafters  to  be  six  inches  at  the 
butt  and  five  inches  at  the  point,  placed  twenty-two  inches  between  centres, 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


53 


notched  over  a  raising  piece  three  by  five  inches,  and  mode  to  project  be¬ 
yond  the  walls,  to  form  the  eave  of  the  building ;  the  rafters  to  be  lathed 
and  roofed  with  the  best  white  pine  or  Cyprus  shingles,  butted  and  jointed. 
Partitions  will  be  of  three  by  four  inch  scantling,  sixteen  inches  between 
centres,  well  braced  and  secured  to  floor  and  ceiling ;  the  timbers  to  be 
white  pine  or  hemlock. 

WINDOWS. 

The  window  frames  will  be  made  reveal  double  boxed,  and  square  headed 
on  the  inside,  sills  of  heart  pine,  sash 
one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  and  hung 
with  axle  pulleys,  patent  cord  and 
weights ;  inside  panel  shutters,  one 
inch  thick  in  two  folds  to  each  jamb, 
will  be  made  and  hung  to  open  against 
the  plastered  jamb  without  boxes;  to 
be  secured  with  hooks  in  the.  usual 
manner.  The  outside  door-frames  will 
be  made  of  scantling,  with  a  square 
face  of  two  inches,  nailed  on  the  front 
edge,  and  finished  up  against  the  brick  jambs.  The  doors  to  be  in  two 
thicknesses  of  grooved  boards,  with  beaded  joints  to  cross  each  other,  and 
well  put  together  with  wrought  nails ;  hung  with  strap  hinges  and  secured 
with  a  ten  inch  rim  knob  lock  on  one,  and  a  park  gate  latch  on  the  other ; 
the  last  to  be  secured  on  the  inside  with  a  twelve  inch  bolt. 

FLOORS 

Will  be  laid  with  heart  pine  or  oak  boards,  one  and  a  fourth  inches  thick, 
to  be  well  nailed  to  the  joist,  and  the  joints  shot. 

JAMBS  AND  DRESSINGS. 

Inside  door  jambs  will  be  of  inch,  and  beaded  hanging  stile  three  inches 
wide,  with  a  two  inch  moulding  to  cover  the  joint  of  plastering. 

DOORS. 

The  room  doors  will  be  of  one  and  a  half  inch  plank,  four  plain  raised 
panels,  hung  with  four  inch  butts  and  secured  with  cottage  rim  locks.  Those 
for  the  closets  will  be  one  and  a  fourth  inches  thick,  hung  with  three  and 
a  half  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  cupboard  locks  and  knobs.  The 
closets  will  be  made  where  shown  on  the  plan,  and  fitted  up  with  shelv¬ 
ing,  to  be  enclosed  a  convenient  height  and  finished  on  the  top  with  a  neat 
moulding. 

VENTIDUCTS. 

Two  ventiducts  will  be  made  of  sound  inch  boarding,  eight  by  twenty 
inches  in  the  clear,  smooth  on  the  inside  and  air-tight,  with  openings  top 


54 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


and  bottom  and  shutters  to  the  same;  to  be  continued  in  the  loft  to  the 
centre  and  capped  with  an  improved  ventilator. 

WAINSCOTING. 

The  sides  of  the  School  and  class  rooms  will  be  wainscoted  three  feet 
high,  with  planed  and  grooved  inch  boards,  put  up  vertically,  and  capped 
on  a  line  with  the  sills  of  the  windows. 

PLATFORM. 

A  platform  four  by  fifteen  feet,  eight  inch  rise,  will  be  made  for  the 
Teacher’s  desk,  with  a  black-board  five  feet  in  height  or  width,  the  same 
length  as  the  platform. 

PIN  RAILS. 

Pin  rails  will  be  put  in  the  clothes  rooms,  and  eight  dozen  hooks  of  an 
approved  kind,  well  secured  to  the  same ;  and  pin-rails  or  slabs,  four  inches 
wide,  round  the  main  room  for  maps,  &c.,  at  such  height  as  ordered  by 
committee. 

CELLAR  DOOR  AND  STEPS. 

A  set  of  cellar  door  cheeks  and  sill  of  heart  pine,  will  be  put  up,  and 
cellar  door  made  and  hung  with  straps  and  hooks,  and  secured  with  a  hasp 
and  padlock ;  a  strong  step-ladder  will  also  be  made  to  lead  into  the  cellar. 
Outside  steps  and  platform  of  wood  will  be  made,  for  each  entrance  door, 
and  two  iron  scrapers  secured  to  each  of  them. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  will  receive  three  coats  of  pure 
white  lead  and  best  linseed  oil,  and  be  finished  in  plain  colors.  The  sash  to 
be  glazed  .with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded,  sprigged  and  puttied. 
The  size  of  the  glass  in  the  double  windows  twelve  by  sixteen  inches, 
twelve  lights  in  each  frame,  and  in  the  single  windows  twelve  by  sixteen 
inches,  eighteen  lights  in  each. 

PRIVIES  AND  FENCING. 

The  well  will  be  squared  up  with  masonry,  and  a  brick  building  put 
thereon,  ten  by  ten  feet  on  the  outside,  and  seven  feet  high  in  the  clear,  to 
be  roofed  in  with  shingles,  and  the  same  to  project  one  foot  from  the  walls ; 
to  be  divided  into  two  apartments,  a  slat  window  in  each,  battoned  doors 
to  be  made,  hung  and  secured  with  latches ;  to  be  plastered  on  the  inside 
and  fitted  up  with  seats  and  risers,  with  a  close  flue,  eight  inches  square, 
from  the  floor  to  the  height  of  eighteen  inches  above  the  comb  of  roof. 

A  close  grooved  fence  will  be  put  up  seven  feet  high,  from  the  centre 
of  the  School-house  to  the  centre  of  the  privy,  dividing  the  yard  into 
two  parts,  the  length  to  be  determined  by  the  Directors. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


55 


MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  are  all  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  lumber  well  sea¬ 
soned;  all  requisite  hardware  to  be  furnished  to  complete  the  building  and 
of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  of  the  different  parts  to  be  done 
in  a  neat  and  substantial  manner. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  averaging  the  material  and  labor  as  in  the 
preceding  plans,  would  be,  completed  acccording  to  the  specification,  eleven 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 


CLASS  II.  —  No.  2. 

This  neat  structure  is  designed  for  two  distinct  Schools,  but  so  arranged 
by  means  of  a  movable  glass  partition,  as  to  be  thrown  into  one  whenever 
required.  The  plan  will  serve  equally  well  for  two  Schools  of  different 
grades  in  a  thickly  settled  country  District,  as  for  two  of  the  same  grade  or 
of  different  sexes  in  a  small  town.  As  already  several  times  stated,  the 
platforms  and  black-boards  should  be  extended  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
back  of  the  study  rooms,  and  the  back  windows  should  have  blinds  or 
curtains. 


The  full  capacity  of  such  a  house  is  that  of  one  hundred  and  twelve  Pupils. 
If,  for  the  instruction  of  this  number,  three  Teachers  —  one  principal  and  two 


56 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


assistants  —  were  employed,  a  more  desirable  building  or  efficient  system 
of  instruction  could  hardly  be  conceived.  While  two  of  the  Teachers 
were  engaged  in  the  class-rooms  attending  to  recitations,  the  other,  by 
means  of  the  glass  partition  could  preserve  order  in  both  rooms,  and  also 
hear  a  recitation  or  attend  to  some  other  part  of  School-room  duty,  not  re¬ 
quiring  the  privacy  of  the  class-room. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  the  class-rooms  should  have  ample  black¬ 
board  surface.  In  fact,  live  feet  in  height  all  around  their  walls,  commen¬ 
cing  two  feet  from  the  floor,  should  be  devoted  to  this  purpose. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  plan  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a  building  thirty  by  forty  feet, 
with  a  projecting  wing  ten  by  twenty-live  feet ;  story  fourteen  feet  in  the 

a.  Boys’  entrance  and  clothes  or  recita¬ 
tion  room,  8  by  II  feet. 

b.  Girls’  entrance  and  clothes  or  recita¬ 
tion  room,  8  by  11  feet. 

cc.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
d.  Passage  two  feet  wide. 
ff.  F  lues,  one  for  smoke  and  one  for  a  ven¬ 
tiduct. 

gg.  Teachers’  desks  on  platforms,  4  by  9 
feet. 

m.  Cellar  entrance. 

[Note.  —  The  remaining  numbers  of 
this  class  will  bo  specified  only  where 
they  differ  from  the  first  of  the  class  ;  and 
reference  to',  preceding  plans,  will  always 
be  understood  to  extend  only  to  those  of 
the  class  to  which  the  plan  belongs.  ] 

EXCAVATIONS 

Will  be  the  same,  as  in  No.  1,  excepting  for  the  additional  wing,  the 
foundations  of  wdiich  will  be  sunk  two  leet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

WALLS 

Will  be  of  stone,  laid  in  the  same  manner,  and  of  the  same  thickness, 
and  rough-casted  down  to  the  pointed  base,  as  in  the  preceding  plan. 

An  additional  wall  will  be  built  in  the  cellar,  formed  by  piers  four  feet 
wide  and  sixteen  inches  thick,  (the  openings  at  the  head  to  be  arched,)  to 
support  the  ends  of  the  joists,  and  the  glass  partition. 

FLUES 

Will  be  built  of  brick,  well  pargeted,  and  topped  out  smoothly ;  along¬ 
side  of  each  smoke  flue,  one  will  be  made  for  a  ventiduct  twelve  by  eighteen 
inches,  with  iron  registers  inserted  in  the  same,  top  and  bottom,  to  be  brought 
together  by  an  air-tight  wooden  shaft  in  the  loft,  and  completed  up  to  the 
ventilator  on  the  roof,  of  the  full  capacity  of  both  ventiducts. 


clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  thirteen  feet. 


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CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


57 


SILLS 

Of  the  doors  and  windows  will  also  be  of  hammer  dressed  stone,  and  of 
the  same  size  as  in  No.  1,  of  this  class. 

PLASTERING 

Will  be  done  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  preceding. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  and  will  bear  upon  the 
ends  and  centre  wall.  The  ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  twelve  inches, 
laid  parallel  with  the  parti¬ 
tion  ;  the  rafters  the  same 
size,  and  notched  to  project 
over  the  wall  to  support  the 
eave,  and  framed  with  one 
and  a  half  inch  collar  beam 
across  them. 

WING. 

The  flooring  joists  of  the 
wing  will  be  three  by  eight 
inches,  and  ceiling  joists 
three  by  five  inches ;  in 
other  respects  the  same  as 
in  the  preceding  plan. 

Slate  may  be  used  for  this  building,  if  convenient  and  approved  of  by  the 
Directors.  The  windows  will  all  be  made  plank  or  casing,  and  moulded 
on  the  outside;  the  sash  and  inside  shutters  will  be  made  the  same,  and 
hung  in  the  same  manner,  as  the  preceding  No.  of  this  class.  The  front 
double  window,  eave  and  ventilator  on  the  roof,  will  be  explained  by  details 
in  plates  Nos.  1,  2  and  3,  “Architectural  Details.”  A  sash  partition  will 
divide  the  building  into  two  rooms  ;  the  sash  to  be  double  hung  with  the  best 
axle  pulleys,  patent  cord  and  weights ;  sash  one  and  a  half  inches  thick  ;— 
a  sash  door  will  be  made  in  one  of  the  openings  one  and  a  half  inches  thick, 
hung  with  three  and  a  half  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  a  mortice  lock;  the 
glass  to  range  with  those  of  the  partition,  and  the  space  above  to  be  filled 
up  with  a  transom-sash,  on  a  line  with  the  same  at  the  top.  The  walls 
will  be  wainscoted  up  to  the  height  of  the  window  sills,  and  the  same  will 
be  continued  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  and  done  as  in  the  preceding  plan. 
Two  platforms  for  Teachers’  desks  will  be  in  this  building,  four  by  nine  feet 
each.  The  floors,  jambs  and  dressings,  doors,  black-boards,  pin-rails  and 
clothes  hooks,  map  rails,  cellar  door,  &c.,  and  privies  and  fencing,  will  be  as 
in  the  preceding.  In  this  plan  it  is  intended  to  have  movable  book  cases, 
which  are  to  be  made  of  the  number  form  and  size  to  be  ordered  by  the 
8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


58 

Directors.  The  painting  and  glazing  will  be  as  in  the  preceding ;  size  of 
glass  will  be  fourteen  by  sixteen  inches,  twelve  lights  in  each  frame ; 
the  size  of  the  partition  glass  will  be  twelve  by  sixteen  inches. 

MEMORANDUM. 

All  the  material  and  workmanship  will  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  all 
completed,  in  every  particular,  according  to  this  specification  or  the  prece¬ 
ding  one  as  referred  to,  and  all  to  be  done  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  building 
committee  or  board  of  Directors. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  estimate  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan  would  be  fourteen 
hundred  dollars. 


CLASS  II.  — No.  3. 

The  general  plan  of  this  house  differs  mainly  in  size  from  the  preceding 
one.  It  is  of  the  same  grade  and  designed  for  the  same  uses.  The  class  or 
clothes  rooms  are  somewhat  larger  and  therein  it  excels  the  other ;  but  the 
arrangement  of  the  Pupils’  and  Teachers’  seats  and  desks  does  not  seem  to 


be  so  convenient.  It  will  probably  be  found  that  the  Teacher’s  desk  on  a 
long  platform,  had  better  be  at  the  back  of  the  room,  on  the  opposite  side 
from  the  entrances,  and  that  the  Pupils  should  all  face  in  that  direction. 
Thus  arranged,  this  building  would  conveniently  and  safely  seat  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  forty-four  Pupils,  and  find  employment  for  one  principal  and  two  or 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


59 


three  assistant  Teachers,  of  whom  two  could  hear  classes  in  the  recitation 
rooms,  and  the  other  one  or  two  attend  to  order  and  hear  lessons  in  the 
study  rooms. 

An  additional  window  should  be  put  in  what  will  be  the  west  end,  if  the 
back  of  the  building  be  placed  towards  the  north.  In  that  case  one  double 
window  will  be  sufficient  in  the  back  or  north  side,  placed  in  the  middle  of 
it,  so  as  to  open  into  both  study  rooms ;  and  the  second  book  closet  should 
be  transferred  from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west  corner  of  the  building. 

SPECIFICATION'. 

The  size  of  the  main  part  of  this  building  is  thirty-two  by  fifty-four  feet, 
and  of  the  wing  or  projecting  lobbies  eight  by  twenty-eight  feet ;  the  story 
is  fourteen  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  pitch  of  roof  six  feet. 


a.  Entrance  for  boys,  and 
clothes  room,  7  by  12 
feet. 

a.  Entrance  for  girls,  and 
clothes  room. 

c.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 

d.  Seats  for  two  Pupils 

each. 

e.  Passages  2  feet  wide. 
ff.  Smoke  flues. 

vv.  Yentiducts. 
to.  Entrance  to  cellar. 
gg.  Teacher’s  desks  on 
platforms  4  by  13  feet. 


The  differences  between  this  plan  and  the  first  of  the  class  will  only  be 
specified.  The  whole  will  be  excavated,  excepting  that  portion  under  the 
wing ;  and  the  walls  will  be  the  same  thickness  as  those  of  the  plan  before 
mentioned,  with  the  additional  wall  in  the  cellar,  for  the  support  of  the 
glass  partitions.  The  rough-casting  will  be  done  in  the  same  manner,  (com¬ 
mencing  with  the  pointed  base,)  and  the  rustic  corners,  and  the  window 
heads  on  the  principal  front,  will  be  formed  of  the  same  material.  The  sills  of 
the  doors  and  windows  will  be  of  stone,  as  in  the  preceding,  and  sizes  similar. 

The  interior  plastering  will  be  the  same ;  the  ventiducts  in  this  building 
will  be  formed  in  the  walls,  smoothly  plastered  on  the  inside,  and  the  front 
lining  to  be  of  sound  inch  boards,  well  secured  to  grounds  on  the  wall ;  they 
will  be  made  eight  by  twenty-four  inches  in  the  clear,  and  in  the  loft  will 
be  continued  to  the  bell  frame,  which  will  also  be  arranged  for  a  venti¬ 
lator,  and  the  shaft  in  the  loft  will  be  of  the  full  capacity  of  the  vertical 
ducts,  and  air-tight. 


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60 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  carpenter  work  not  specified,  will  be  as  in  the  first  of  this  class ; 
the  timbers  will  be  the  same  size,  and  laid  in  the  same  manner  as  in 

the  plan  No.  2,  Class  II.  — 
The  rafters  will  be  notched, 
to  extend  over  the  wall  to 
build  the  eaves  upon.  The 
rafters  will  be  covered  with 
quartered  boarding,  well  nail¬ 
ed  to  the  same,  and  prepared 
for  metal  roofing,  and  overlaid 
with  tin  in  the  same  manner, 
and  of  the  same  quality  as  in 
No.  6,  of  Class  I.  The  win¬ 
dow  frames  will  be  made  plank  front  or  casing,  and  sash  of  the  same  kind, 
and  made  and  hung,  as  in  the  preceding  plan.  The  windows  in  the  prin¬ 
cipal  front  will  have  inside  shutters  in  two  folds  to  the  jamb,  and  hung  and 
fastened  in  the  usual  manner.  The  other  windows  will  have  outside  shut¬ 
ters,  paneled  flat  and  moulded,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  hung  with  straps 
and  hooks,  and  secured  with  ten  inch  shutter  bolts;  though  generally  it 
is  recommended  to  have  inside  shutters  or  blinds  for  convenience,  the  cost 
being  about  the  same  as  outside.  If  inside  shutters  are  preferred,  they 
should  be  made  as  above  and  to  open  against  the  jamb,  without  boxes.  A 
partition  divides  this  into  two  rooms,  and  as  in  the  former,  the  sash  is  to 
be  double  hung,  and  one  opening  finished  with  a  sash  door.  The  bell 
tower,  eave  and  front  window  will  be  explained  by  details  in  plates  Nos. 
2  and  4,  “  Architectural  Details.”  The  floors,  jambs  and  dressings,  doors, 
blackboards,  pin  and  map  rails  and  clothes  hooks,  cellar  door,  &c.,  privies 
and  fencing  will  be  as  in  the  preceding. 

The  materials  and  workmanship  of  this  jflan  will  be  of  the  best  quality, 
and  every  thing  necessary  to  complete  the  building  in  all  its  parts  to  be 
furnished  by  the  contractor,  according  to  this  specification  or  references. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  estimate  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan,  could  be  completed 
tor  sixteen  hundred  dollars. 


CLASS  1 1 .  —  N  o  .  4 . 

The  main  difference  between  this  and  the  preceding  house  is  in  the  ma¬ 
terial  ;  the  estimate  being  for  brick.  It  has  the  full  length  platform,  and 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


61 


if  two  of  the  back  windows  were  dispensed  with,  an  increased  black-board 
surface  could  be  obtained.  The  arrangement  would  then  be  complete  in 
these  respects.  To  retain  a  full  supply  of  light  and  air,  an  additional  window 
might  be  placed  in  each  end  of  the  building,  without  increasing  the  num¬ 
ber  or  the  cost  in  the  specification. 


In  all  the  houses  of  this  class,  the  clothes  rooms,  as  such,  are  sufficiently 
large ;  but  if  used,  as  they  should  be,  for  recitation  purposes,  they  will  be 
found  rather  small.  Larger  dimensions  might  therefore  be  given  to  this 
part  of  the  building,  at  slight  inctease  of  cost,  and  to  the  great  advantage  of 
the  School. 


This  building  is  calculated  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  Pupils  — 
two  Schools  of  sixty-four  each ;  and  with  a  principal  and  two  assistant 
Teachers  of  the  right  kind,  its  effect  would  no  doubt  be  as  beneficial  as  its 
appearance  would  be  creditable  to  the  place  of  its  location. 

SPECIFICATION. 


The  general  plan  of  this  building  differs  from  No.  3,  only  in  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  seats,  and  Teachers’  platforms.  The  size  of  building  is  the 
same,  and  also  tlie  pitch  of  the  roof. 

This  plan  is  intended  for  a  brick  building,  and  as  such  will  be  described ; 
but  if  stone  is  the  most  convenient  material  where  it  is  to  be  located,  the 
article  will  suit,  by  making  the  walls  accordingly. 


EXCAVATIONS 

Will  be  made  as  in  the  last.  The  cellar  walls  up  to  the  surface  of  the 


62 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


ground,  will  be  of  stone,  also  the  division  wall  in  the  cellar,  and  of  the  same 
thickness,  as  described  in  the  foregoing  plan. 

The  two  front  door  sills  will  be  of  cut  stone,  twelve  inches  wide  on  the 
top  face,  and  eight  inches  rise. 


CZ3  □  a 

□  □  □□ 

a  czirLZd  a 
a  cu  □  □ 
□  zzj  □  mi 
tm  □  □  cii 
td  [d  HU  CD 


□  □  □□ 
□  □  □□ 

□  □  aa 

[d  d>Cd  [d 

□  □  □□ 
□  □□□ 
□  □□□ 
□  □□□ 


/ 


a.  Boys’  entrance  and 

clothes  room,  8  by 
12  feet. 

b.  Girls’  entrance  and 

clothes  room,  8  by 
12  feet. 

cc.  Teachers’  desks  on 
platforms  4  feet  by 
the  width  of  the 
room. 

dd.  Seats  for  two  Pu¬ 
pils  each. 

ee.  Passages  2  ft.  wide. 
/.  Passages  3  ft.  wide. 
gg.  Seats  for  recitation 
hh.  Closets  for  books. 
kk.  Smoke  flues. 

l.  Glass  partition. 

m.  Entrance  to  cellar. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 


THE  WALLS 

Of  this  building  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  upwards,  will  be  of  well 
burnt  brick ;  up  to  the  line  of  base  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  above  that 
line  fifteen  inches,  being  a  thirteen  inch  wall  spread  two  inches,  making  a 
hollow  space  between  the  inside  four  inches,  and  the  outside  nine  inches,  to 

prevent  dampness  from  pen¬ 
etrating  the  same.  The  two 
surfaces  will  be  bonded  to¬ 
gether  with  alternate  head¬ 
ers  every  fifth  course.  The 
base  will  project  two  inches ; 
cellar  windows  will  be  form¬ 
ed  in  the  base,  and  furnished 
in  the  usual  manner  with 
iron  guards.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  walls  will  be 
faced  with  the  best  rubbed 
stretchers,  and  the  mortar 
must  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  and  wood-burnt  lime.  The  plas¬ 
tering  will  be  done  like  No.  3,  excepting  that  the  brick  walls  will  not  be 
lathed,  but  will  receive  the  mortar  direct. 


CARPENTER  WORK 

Will  be  done  in  the  same  manner  as  the  last,  with  very  few  exceptions, 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


63 


which  will  be  noted,  and  the  timbers  likewise  will  be  the  same,  and  of  the 
same  quality.  The  windows  will  be  made  plank  front  or  casing,  with 
wooden  sub-sills  and  heads ;  and  the  shutters  will  be  one  and  a  half  inches 
thick,  flat  panel  and  moulded,  hung  on  the  outside  Math  straps  and  hooks 
and  secured  with  ten  inch  shutter  bolts.  The  ceiling  joists  will  be  laid  on 
the  wall  plates ;  and  in  this  building  the  plancher  will  be  level,  for  which, 
and  for  the  cupola  and  front  window  head  see  “  Architectural  Details,” 
plates  Nos.  1,  2  and  3.  The  roof  will  be  overlaid  with  tin  as  in  the  last. 
The  sash  partition,  floors,  jambs  and  mouldings,  doors,  closets,  map  rails, 
black-boards,  pin  rails  and  clothes  pins,  ventiducts,  cellar  door  and  steps,  and 
outside  steps  of  wood,  privies  and  fencing,  will  be  as  in  the  preceding  plans. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  which  it  is  usual  to  paint,  will  be  painted  with  three 
coats,  and  sash  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass ;  the  size  will  be  twelve 
by  fifteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  to  each  frame  ;  the  glass  of  the  partition 
will  be  the  same  height  and  ten  inches  wide. 

MEMORANDUM. 

All  the  foregoing  work  will  be  done  in  the  best  manner,  and  all  materials 
necessary  to  complete  the  building,  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  including 
every  thing  referred  to  in  the  preceding  plans. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  according  to  the  plan  and  specification,  would 
be  eighteen  hundred  dollars. 


CLASS  II.  — No.  5. 

This  is  the  most  complete  as  well  as  the  most  expensive,  of  the  buildings 
of  its  class.  The  double  entrances  to  each  room  — -  one  in  front  and  one  in 
rear  —  will  be  found  very  convenient.  If  the  apartments  designated  as 
“  boys’  ”  and  “  girls’  ”  clothes  rooms  on  the  ground  plan,  be  used  for  recita¬ 
tion  purposes,  their  entire  privacy  may  be  effected  by  using  the  front  en¬ 
trances  for  ordinary  purposes,  during  School  hours.  There  is  also,  here,  a 
long  platform,  which  if  placed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  where  there 
are  no  windows,  will  both  give  greater  black-board  space  and  afford  a  safer 
and  more  pleasant  light  to  the  pupiis’  eyes,  without  any  increase  of  cost. 

The  bell  is  an  indispensable  requisite  to  the  School,  and  with  its  neat 
belfry,  forms  quite  an  ornament  to  this  building.  It  should  always  be  rung 
.a  reasonable  time  before  the  commencement  of  the  exercises,  to  enable  Pu- 


64 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


pils,  by  increased  speed,  to  be  in  their  seats  in  due  time ;  and  the  ringing 
of  it,  at  the  close  of  the  fore  and  afternoon  session,  will  enable  parents  within 


its  sound,  to  km>w  whether  that  loitering  on  the  way  home,  which  should 
not  be  permitted,  has  been  practiced.  It  need  scarcely  be  stated,  that  it  is 
the  Teacher’s  duty  to  be  on  the  ground  some  time  before  the  regular  ex¬ 
ercises  commence,  and  to  be  the  last  person  on  it  after  they  close.  If  he 
practice  this  duty  rigidly  himself,  and  also  hold  his  Pupils  responsible  for  the 
propriety  of  their  behavior  on  the  way  to  and  from  School,  he  will  soon 
find  that  their  promptness  and  regularity  will  increase. 


a.  Outside  porch  and  en¬ 
trance  for  Teachers, 
4  by  8  ft.  in  the  clear. 
bb.  Teachers’  desks  ;  plat¬ 
forms  4  by  18  feet,  8 
inch  rise. 

c.  Boys’  entrance  and 

clothes  room,  8  by  12 
feet. 

d.  Girls’  entrance  and 

clothes  room,  8  by  12 
feet. 

ee.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 
fp.  Gas  flues. 

«g.  Seats  for  two  Pupils 
h.  Passagestwo  feet  wide, 
each. 

k.  Entrance  to  the  cellar, 
vv.  Ventiducts. 


CONSTRUCTION  OR  RURAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES! 


65 


SPECIFICATION. 

The  ground  plan  of  this  building  differs  from  the  last  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  seats,  and  in  having  an  outside  lobby,  or  covered  porch,  on  the  front. 
The  main  building  is  the  same  size;  the  material  is  brick,  with  pilasters  pro¬ 
jecting  from  the  surface  of  the  walls ;  the  pitch  of  this  roof  is  six  feet. 

This  plan  is  intended  for  a  brick  building,  and  the  difference  between  it 
and  the  one  preceding,  is  mainly  in  the  exterior,  which  will  be  described 
in  this  place,  and  more  fully  explained  by  details. 

The  excavations  and  stone  work  of  the  cellar  and  foundations,  will  be  as 
in  the  last ;  the  foundations  of  the  front  porch  to  be  done  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  of  the  back  wing,  and  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  up¬ 
wards,  to  be  of  brick ;  to  the  height  of  the  base  eighteen  inches  thick, 
and  alcove  that  height,  a  nine  inch  wall  spread  two  inches  on  the  centre ; 
and  the  pilasters  will  project  four  inches  from  that  surface,  which  will 
make  the  wall  in  the  recesses  eleven  inches,  and  through  the  pilasters  fif¬ 
teen  inches.  The  gas 
flues  will  be  thoroughly 
pargeted,  and  topped 
out  according  to  the  ele- 
evation ;  the  outside  sur¬ 
face  of  the  wall  will  be 
built  of  the  best  rubbed 
stretchers,  or  pressed 
bricks,  arid  be  laid  in  i 
the  best  manner  with  the  joints  smoothly  struck.  The  floor  of  the  porch 
will  be  paved  with  the  same  kind  of  brick  as  those  with  which  the  outside 
surface  of  the  wall  is  built.- 


*  CUT  STONE,  &c. 

The  door  sills  and  steps  to  the  front  porch  will  be  of  cut  stone,  each  to 
be  twelve  inches  on  the  top  face,  and  eight  inch  rise,  smoothly  dressed  and 
solidly  set.  The  plastering  will  be  done  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
last. 

MATERIALS  AND  CARPENTER  WORK 

Will  be  the  same,  and  the  difference  in  the  work  will  be  in  the  eave  and 
bell  tower.  The  latter  will  be  constructed  for  a  ventilator  as  in  No.  3,  and 
according  to  “  Architectural.Details,”  plate  No.  4.  The  window  sash,  par¬ 
tition,  doors,  jambs  and  dressings,  black-boards,  map  and  pin  rails  and 
clothes  hooks,  ventiducts,  closets,  cellar  door  and  steps,  privies  and  fencing, 
will  be  as  in  No.  3.  The  roof  will  be  of  tin  as  in  the  preceding.  The 
painting  and  glazing  and  the  size  of  the  glass  will  be  the  same  as  in 
No.  4. 


9 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


c@ . 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  in  the  above  plan  to  be  all  of  the  best  quality,  and  every 
thing  requisite  to  finish  the  building  to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor  at 
his  own  cost  and  expense,  and  the  workmanship  of  the  different  parts,  to 
be  according  to  the  plans,  elevations  and  details ;  and  to  be  done  in  a  neat 
and  substantial  manner,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  building  committee. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  according  to  the  plan  and  specification,  would 
be  two  thousand  dollars. 

N.  B.  In  the  erection  of  this  class  of  buildings,  should  Directors  think 
proper  to  leave  out  the  glass  partitions,  and  make  one  large  room,  it  can 
be  done,  as  they  are  designed  with  that  object  in  view. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


67 


IV.  CONSTRUCTION  OP  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


ON  THE  SIZE,  FORM,  MATERIAL  AND  INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  GRADES 

OP  SCHOOL-HOUSES  REQUIRED  IN  VILLAGES  AND  SMALL  TOWNS,  WHETHER  FOR  SEPA¬ 
RATE  OR  UNION  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

In  arranging  the  Schools  and  system  of  instruction  in  towns  with  from 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  five  hundred  Pupils,  (for  which  the  plans  in 
this  class  are  designed)  the  first  question  to  be  determined  is,  whether  the 
Separate  or  the  Union  graded  system  shall  prevail.  If  the  former,  then  the 
Schools  being  necessarily  separate  —  each  with  about  fifty  Pupils  and  one 
Teacher  —  one  or  other  of  the  plans  in  class  I,  will  be  suitable  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  ;  or  possibly  some  of  those  in  class  II  may  be  required  to  accommodate 
a  School  with  over  fifty  Pupils  and  an  assistant  Teacher. 

But  if  the  Union  system  be  adopted,  (by  which  all  the  Pupils  are  brought 
into  the  same  building,)  a  house  of  the  capacity  and  arrangement  of  one  or 
other  in  this  (third)  class  wrill  be  requisite.  And  if  the  number  of  Pupils 
approach  five  hundred  it  may  even  become  necessary,  either  to  enlarge  the 
dimensions  of  the  plan  selected  from  the  third  class,  cr  to  resort  to  one  of 
those  in  class  IV. 

It  is  found  by  experience  that  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  youth  of  School 
age,  in  a  town  or  other  District,  belong  to  the  Primary,  and  a  little  over 
one-third  to  the  higher  grades ;  and  that  of  those  above  the  primary  grade, 
something  more  than  two-thirds  belong  to  the  Grammar  grade,  and  some¬ 
what  less  than  cne-third,  (or  about  one-tenth  of  the  whole  number)  to  the 
High.  Hence,  dividing  the  whole  number  into  ten  equal  parts,  Directors 
will  be  safe  in  providing  Primary  Schools  for  six-tenths,  Grammar  Schools 
for  three-tenths,  and  a  High  School  for  one-tenth.  The  time  may,  and  it  is 
to  be  hoped  will,  soon  come  when  a  larger  proportion  than  this  shall  seek 
the  benefits  of  the  higher  studies;  but  these  being  about  the  present  pro¬ 
portions,  they  are  mentioned  as  affording  some  guide  in  making  School¬ 
room  arrangements. 

Thus,  in  a  District  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  Pupils  of  all  ages,  two 
Primary  Schools  with  about  fifty  Pupils  in  each,  and  one  Grammar  School 
with  the  same  number,  and  each  with  its  separate  Teacher,  will  be  needed, 


68 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


under  the  Separate  system;  while,  on  the  Union  plan,  the  same  number  of 
Teachers — -one  principal  and  two  assistants,  in  one  building  —  will  be 
required.  So,  a  District  with  three  hundred  Pupils  on  the  Separate  plan, 
will  have  four  Primary  Schools  with  forty-five  Pupils  in  each,  two  secon¬ 
dary  with  forty-five  in  each,  and  one  High  with  thirty ;  that  being  none 
too  few  to  have  full  justice  done  them  by  one  Teacher  of  the  higher  branches. 
If  the  same  three  hundred  be  collected  together  under  the  Union  system, 
there  may  be,  possibly,  one  Teacher  less  in  the  primary  department,  and 
therefore  a  saving  to  that  extent. 

In  arranging  the  Schools,  Directors  should  have  an  eye  to  the  future  as 
well  as  the  present.  Most  of  our  Districts,  and  especially  the  towns,  are 
regularly,  and  many  of  them  rapid!}7,  growing  in  population.  It  will  be  well, 
therefore,  to  make  a  liberal  provision  of  School-room,  so  as  to  meet  the  de¬ 
mands  of  this  growth,  at  least  for  several  years  to  come  ;  and  in  purchasing 
lots  for  Schools  in  towns,  place  should  be  obtained  and  reserved  for  an  ad¬ 
ditional  building  on  each,  when  necessary. 

This  last  remark  is,  however,  more  ajqriicable  to  Districts  with  the  Sepa¬ 
rate  than  the  Union  system  of  graded  Schools.  In  the  latter,  when  the 
number  of  Pupils  materially  exceeds  five  hundred,  (which  would  give  about 
three  hundred  in  the  Primary,  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  the  Grammar,  and 
fifty  in  the  High  departments)  probably  the  better  mode  of  providing  for 
the  wants  of  such  increasing  population  will  be  the  erection  of  an  additional 
Union  School,  in  another  part  of  the  town.  By  this  means  the  various 
sections  will  be  better  accommodated,  the  congregation  of  an  undue  number 
of  Pupils  at  the  same  point  avoided,  and  a  generous  emulation  be  estab¬ 
lished  between  the  two  Schools. 

As  this  class  of  plans  embraces  the  first  structures,  higher  than  one  story, 
that  have  been  presented  in  this  Manual,  it  becomes  proper  to  call  attention 
to  the  importance  of  providing  large  entries  and  passages  and  wide  stair¬ 
ways,  in  all  such  buildings.  In  the  construction  of  stairs  no  slight  hand 
rails  should  be  permitted.  The  sides  should  be  solidly  and  strongly  boarded 
in,  so  as  to  resist  pressure  in  time  of  a  sudden  alarm  ;  and  the  width  should 
be  such  as  to  give  egress  to  the  inmates,  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  No 
economical  considerations  will  ever  justify  or  excuse  those  dreadful  occur¬ 
rences,  which  have  arisen  from  the  insufficiency  of  stairway  and  entr_y 
accommodations,  in  times  of  School  panic.  To  remove  all  danger  from 
this  source,  as  well  as  to  increase  general  convenience,  every  story  of  a 
School-house  higher  than  one  story,  should  have  two  stairways  and  two 
outlets. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


69 


CLASS  III.  —  No.  1. 

From  the  presence  of  trees  and  shrubbery  around  this  building,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  it  is  a  rural  School.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  mainly 
designed  for  large  villages  and  the  smaller  class  of  boroughs.  But  the 
artist  has  shown  his  taste  by  allowing  a  good  sized  lot,  and  throwing  in 
those  natural  embellishments  which  should  adorn  every  School,  whether  in 
town  or  country. 

There  are  four  School-rooms  in  this  building,  averaging  about  twenty-five 
feet  square,  and  each  capable  of  seating  forty-five  or  fifty  Pupils  comforta¬ 
bly.  It  may,  therefore,  be  called  a  School  for  two  hundred  Pupils. 

The  arrangement  as  shown  on  the  plan  of  the  lower  story  is  probably 
not  the  best  that  might  be  made.  If  the  desks  were  ranged  in  rows  of  six 
each,  the  Pupils  facing  the  blank  partition  next  the  entries  and  stairs,  where 


also  an  extended  platform  and  black-board  should  be  placed,  it  would  add  to 
the  completeness  and  comfort  of  the  rooms.  In  that  case  the  communicating 
doors  in  the  sash  partitions  should  be  near  the  platforms,  and  the  middle 
passages  wider  than  the  others,  say  not  less  than  three  feet.  Advantage 
might  also  be  taken  of  the  slight  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two  rooms 
on  the  same  floor,  by  assigning  the  smaller  ones  to  the  younger  divisions, 
whose  seats  and  desks  will,  of  course,  be  less  than  the  others.  Thus  each 
room  would  still  accommodate  the  same  number. 

The  building  should,  if  practicable,  be  placed  with  its  greatest  length 


TO 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


extending  from  east  to  west.  This  position  will  throw  the  light  most 
equally  and  pleasantly  into  all  the  rooms. 


FIRST  STORY  FOR  BOYS. 


a.  Entrance  and  lobby  for  boys,  G  by  8  feet. 

b.  Entrance  for  girls  and  stairs  leading  to 

the  second  story. 

c.  Closet  for  books  and  apparatus. 
dd.  Closets  for  buckets  and  brushes. 
ee.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 

gg.  Teachers’  desks,  on  platform  4  by  12  feet. 

h.  Door-way  in  the  partition. 

k.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 

l.  Teachers’  room,  6  by  15  feet. 
in.  Entrance  to  the  cellar. 

vv.  Ventiducts. 


The  artist  has  omitted  a  closet  for  books  and  apparatus  on  the  second 
story.  This  is  an  oversight ;  and  should,  by  all  means,  be  included.  It 

may  be  taken  off  the  Teachers5 
room,  and  should  be  of  liberal  size. 


SECOND  STORY  FOR  GIRLS. 


a.  Teachers’  room,  6  by  18  feet. 

b.  Clothes  room,  9  by  10  feet. 

c.  Passage. 

d.  School-room,  24  by  26  feet. 

e.  School-room  34  by  24  feet. 
g.  Stairs. 

vvvv.  Ventiducts. 


SPECIFICATION. 

This  is  the  plan  of  a  framed  building  thirty-four  feet  wide  on  the  front, 
and  fifty  deep  on  the  flank ;  two  stories  high,  first  fourteen  and  second 
thirteen  feet,  each  in  the  clear  of  floor  and  ceiling ;  and  pitch  of  roof  seven 
feet.  This  being  the  first  of  this  class  of  buildings,  a  full  specification  is 
given  as  follows : 

EXCAVATION. 


The  cellar  will  be  excavated  seven  feet  deep,  in  clear  of  floor  and  lower 
edge  of  joists,  the  cellar  door- way  likewise ;  and  the  trenches  for  the  cellar 
walls  six  inches  below  the  cellar  level ;  a  well  for  a  privy  will  be  dug  twelve 
feet  deep,  six  feet  in  diameter,  circular,  and  bricked  up  with  a  dry  four  inch 
hard  brick  wall.  All  rubbish  and  earth,  not  required  for  leveling  or  grading 
around  the  building,  will  be  removed  from  the  premises,  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  Directors  or  their  committee. 


MASONRY. 

The  cellar  walls  will  be  built  up  of  good  building  stone,  sixteen  inches 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


71 


thick,  tho  height  to  receive  the  sills  of  the  frame ;  and  the  stone  work 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  to  be  neatly  pointed  on  the  outer  surface. 
Four  piers  will  be  built  in  the  cellar  eighteen  inches  square,  to  support  the 
glass  partitions ;  the  inside  surface  of  the  walls  to  be  dashed.  Two  stacks  of 
chimney  flues  will  be  built  up  from  the  cellar,  with  two  flues  in  each  stack, 
up  from  the  second  floor,  and  from  that  line  upwards  but  one  in  each, 
and  topped  out  with  good  back  stretchers ;  the  flues  to  be  each  nine  by 
eighteen  inches,  and  well  pargeted ;  the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean 
sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime.  Open  cast  iron  guards  will  be  inserted 
in  the  cellar  windows  for  light  and  air. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  sills  will  be  six  by  eight  inches,  of  white  oak.  All  the  other  tim¬ 
bers  of  hemlock  and  pine : — Posts  four  by  eight  inches ;  ties  and  plates  four 
by  six  inches,  and  braces  four  by  five ;  flooring-joists  three  by  twelve,  and 
ceiling-joists  two  by  ten,  and  the  joists  and  studding  placed  sixteen  inches 
between  centres,  and  flooring  joists  backed  with  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
crown,  and  two  lines  of  lattice  bridging  secured  in  each  floor.  All  studding 
will  be  placed  the  four  inches  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  A  trussed  par¬ 
tition  will  be  made  in  the  loft  over  the  glass  partitions ;  the  sill  or  tie  beam 
four  by  ten,  braces  four  by  eight,  and  plate  and  struts  four  by  five,  well 
bolted  at  the  heel,  and  a  one  and  quarter  inch  iron  rod  through  the  centre, 
securely  fastened  at  the  ends.  The  pole  plate,  three  by  twelve  inches,  will 
rest  upon  the  trussed  partition,  right  and  left,  and  the  rafters  to  bear  upon 
all  in  the  usual  manner.  The  valley  rafters  to  be  three  by  ten  inch  joists, 
and  the  others  the  usual  cut  and  placed  twenty-two  inches  between  centres ; 
to  be  lathed  and  covered  with  the  best  white  pine  or  cypress  shingles, 
butted  and  jointed.  The  partitions  to  be  three  by  four  inches,  and  between 
each  box  of  the  glass  partition  (in  the  first  story,)  a  piece  of  timber  three 
inches  thick,  with  a  plate  at  top,  will  be  secured  for  the  support  of  the 
second  floor  of  joists.  In  the  second  story  the  arrangement  is  to  be  such 
that  one  partition  may  be  removed,  should  it  be  deemed  necessary,  without 
impairing  the  strength  of  the  building. 

OUTSIDE  FINISH. 

The  weather-boarding  will  be  inch,  planed,  ploughed  and  over  dropped ; 
the  window  dressings  will  be  a  plain  architrave  with  a  weather  strip  over 
the  top.  The  door  head  and  eave  will  be  according  to  “  Architectural 
Details,”  plate  No.  5. 

WINDOWS 

Will  all  be  made  with  boxes  for  double  hanging,  sash  one  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  and  hung  with  the  best  pulley  cord  and  weights ;  rolling  blinds 
will  be  made  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  (or  panel  shutters,  moulded  on  one 


72 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


side,  and  bead  and  butt  on  the  other,  as  Directors  may  order,)  hung  with 
straps  and  hooks,  and  secured  with  eight  inch  shutter  bolts. 

FLOORS,  &c. 

"R  ill  be  ol  heart  pine  one  inch  thick,  ploughed  and  grooved,  well  nailed 

to  the  joists  and  joints  shot. 
Stairs  will  be  built  on  strong 
bearers,  and  steps  of  one 
and  a  quarter  inch  oak  or 
ash,  to  be  enclosed  within 
a  planed  and  grooved  par¬ 
tition,  continued  three  feet 
above  the  second  floor,  and 
capped  on  the  top.  A  flight 
will  also  be  continued  to 
the  cellar,  with  a  door  hung 

at  the  head. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  doors  will  be  made  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick,  bead 
and  butt  on  the  inside,  moulded  on  the  outside,  hung  with  four  by  four 
inch  butts,  and  secured  with  a  good  quality  of  knob  rim  lock.  The  doors 
will  be  hung  in  pairs  to  open  outwards.  The  inside  room  doors  will  all 
be  one  a  half  inches,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and  a  half  inch 
butts,  and  secured  with  cottage  rim  locks.  Closet  doors  will  all  be  one  and 
a  quarter  inches,  hung  with  three  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  good  closet 
locks. 

DRESSINGS. 

The  jambs  of  the  doors  will  be  an  inch  thick,  with  a  hanging  stile  three 
inches  wide,  nailed  on  the  same,  and  a  two  inch  moulding  covering  the  joint 
of  plastering.  The  same  finish  will  be  put  on  the  windows. 

GLASS  PARTITIONS. 

The  partitions  dividing  the  two  rooms  will  be  composed  of  sash  one  and 
a  half  inches  thick,  double  hung;  and  in  one  of  the  openings  will  be  a  sash 
door  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and 
a  half  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  lock  as  the  other  doors;  and  above  the 
door  a  transom  sash  will  be  made,  to  make  the  glass  correspond  in  height 
with  the  windows. 

WAINSCOTING,  &c. 

The  School-rooms  will  be  wainscoted  the  height  of  the  window  sills,  and 
the  partitions  also,  with  planed  and  grooved  boards,  and  capped  on  the  top. 
The  wash  boards  in  entries  and  clothes  rooms  will  be  eight  inches  wide, 
including  a  moulding  on  the  top.  Rails  for  maps,  &c.,  will  be  inserted  in 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


7S 


the  walls  of  the  main  rooms,  at  such  height  as  may  be  directed.  The 
closets  will  be  fitted  up  neatly  with  shelving,  and  pin  rails  will  be  put  up 
in  the  clothes  rooms,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  clothes  hooks  put  up  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  pupils,  to  be  of  the  best  quality. 

VENTILATION. 

Flues  will  be  made  for  each  room,  of  strong  boards, ^smoothed  on  the 
inside  and  air-tight,  to  be  continued  direct  to  the  loft  from  each  story ;  and 
from  the  vertical  ducts  to  the  ventilator  on  the  roof,  a  shaft,  well  made, 
equal  in  capacity  to  the  four,  and  capped  on  the  top  with  a  ventilator. 
The  ducts  will  be  six  inches  by  twenty-four  in  the  clear. 

CELLAR. 

Cheeks,  sill,  and  door,  will  be  made  to  the  cellar  entrance  ;  the  door  hung 
with  straps  and  hook,  and  secured  on  the  outside  with  a  hasp  and  pad  lock. 
Strong  steps  will  be  made  and  secured  in  the  doorway,  and  outside  steps 
according  to  the  elevations. 

*  TIN  WORK. 

The  valley  and  gutters  will  be  properly  tinned,  and  arranged  to  convey 
the  water  to  four  by  three  inch  conductors,  which  will  be  continued  to  the 
ground,  and  finished  with  shoes  at  the  bottom.  The  gutters  and  valleys  to 
be  painted  two  coats  of  red  lead. 

PLASTERING. 

All  the  interior  to  be  plastered  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  one  of 
hard  white  finish ;  the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  and 
wood  burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered  hair. 

PAINTING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  will  receive  three  coats  of  pure 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  in  such  tints  as  directed.  The  sash  will  be  all 
glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded  and  back  puttied.  The 
size  of  the  glass  to  be  twelve  by  fifteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  to  a  frame, 
and  those  of  the  partitions  to  correspond. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  lumber  to  be  all  of  the  best  quality,  and  properly  seasoned,  and  all 
hardware  necessary  to  complete  the  building,  to  be  of  the  most  approved 
kind  and  manufacture ;  and  all  other  material,  and  the  workmanship  re¬ 
quired  to  carry  out  the  plan  and  specification,  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and 
all  to  be  done  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Directors  or  their  proper  committee. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  the  building,  according  to  the  specification,  taking  the  average 
of  material  and  labor  throughout  the  State,  will  be  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars. 


10 


74 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


CLASS  III.  — No.  2. 

This  building  will  be  found  very  suitable  for  a  small  Grammar  School 
in  any  district  having  separate  Primary  Schools.  The  males  may  be  placed 
on  the  lower  and  the  females  on  the  upper  story ;  or,  if  taught  together,  one 
floor  can  be  devoted  to  the  first  and  the  other  to  the  second  division. 


Each  story  will  readily  accommodate  fifty  Pupils.  It  would  probably  be 
better  to  remove  the  Teacher’s  platform,  on  both  floors,  from  the  front  of 
the  large  end  windows,  and  to  place  them  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  rooms. 
This,  by  reversing  the  position  of  the  Pupils,  will  save  their  eyes  from  an 
unnecessary  glare  of  light.  It  will  also  afford  greater  blacK-board  space 
behind  the  Teacher,  and  enable  the  platform  to  be  extended  from  one  side 
door  to  the  other,  without  loss  of  floor  space. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  being  the  first  stone  building  of  this  class,  a  full  specification  is 
given.  The  size  is  to  be  twenty-seven  feet  on  front,  by  thirty-five  feet 
deep ;  two  stories  high,  first  fourteen  feet,  and  second  thirteen  feet,  each 
in  the  clear  of  floor  and  ceiling ;  pitch  of  roof  six  feet. 

EXCAVATION. 

The  cellar  will  be  excavated  seven  feet  deep  in  the  clear  of  floor  and 
lower  edge  of  joists ;  a  cellar  doorway,  also,  and  trenches,  six  inches  below 
the  cellar  level ;  a  well  for  a  privy  will  be  dug  twelve  feet  deep,  and  six 
feet  in  diameter,  and  bricked  up  with  a  dry  four  inch  hard  brick  wall.  All 
surplus  earth  and  rubbish  to  be  removed  from  the  premises. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


75 


FIRST  STORY. 

a.  Girls  entrance  and  approach  to  the  second  story. 

b.  Boys  entrance  and  lobby  eight  by  ten  feet. 

c.  Closet  for  books,  &c. 

d.  Passages  two  teet  wide. 

e.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk  and  platform  four  by  twelve  feet. 

h.  Seats  for  three  Pupils  each,  or  recitation. 

k.  Entrance  to  boys  clothes  room,  under  stairs. 

l.  Cellar  stair  door. 

m.  Outside  cellar  door. 
v.  Ventiduct. 


MASONRY. 

The  walls  will  be  made  of  good  building  stone,  laid  upon  their  broadest 
beds,  and  well  and  solidly  bedded  in  mortar.  The  thickness  up  to  the  base 
line  around  the  building  will  be  twenty  inches,  and  above  that  line  eighteen 
inches;  the  inside  wall  dashed  with  mortar,  and  the  outside  up  to  the  line 
base  to  be  neatly  pointed.  The  foundations  of  the  flues  will  be  built  up 
with  stone  to  the  line  of  the  first  floor ;  and  above  that  will  be  of  brick, 
well  pargeted,  and  topped  out  the  usual  height  above  the  roof,  with  back 
stretchers,  and  joints  neatly  struck  on  the  exterior.  All  the  plain  surface 
of  the  walls  will  be  stuccoed  with  mortar,  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  and 
wood  burnt  lime.  The  door  sills  will  be 
of  cut  stone,  eighteen  inches  wide  on  the 
top  face,  and  eight  inches  rise.  Open 
iron  window  guards  will  be  inserted  in 
the  cellar  windows. 

SECOND  STORY. 

a.  Lobby  and  entrance  to  second  story  School-room. 

b.  Clothes  room,  eight  by  ten  feet. 

c.  Closet. 

f.  Flues. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  joists  in  the  first  and  second  stories  will  be  three  by  fourteen  inches, 
backed  with  three  quarters  of  an  inch  crown,  and  two  lines  of  cross  bridg¬ 
ing  through  each  floor.  The  ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  ten ;  and  directly 
under  the  cupola  two  girders  will  be  placed,  four  by  twelve  inches,  and  a 
single  trussed  rafter  formed  on  each.  All  the  joists  will  be  placed  sixteen 
inches  between  centres.  The  rafters  will  be  the  usual  cut,  and  placed  two 
feet  between  centres,  well  secured  on  the  raising  piece,  and  a  one  and  half 
inch  collar  beam  spiked  across  them.  The  cupola  eave  and  outside  dressings 
will  be  in  accordance  with  “Architectural  Details,”  plates  Nos.  5  and  6. 
The  rafters  will  be  closely  boarded,  and  prepared  for  metal  roofing.  Floors 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


7  6 


will  be  laid  with  heart  pine  hoards  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  planed 

and  grooved,  well  nailed  to  the  joists 
and  joints  shot.  Platforms  for  the 
Teacher’s  desks  to  be  made  where 
marked  out  on  the  plan,  and  map 
rails  to  be  inserted  in  the  walls. 
Partitions  will  be  made  with  three 
by  four  inch  scantling,  placed  four 
inches  in  the  thickness,  and  six¬ 
teen  inches  between  centres,  well 
secured  to  floor  and  ceiling,  and 
bridged  across  the  centre.  Stairs 
will  be  constructed  on  strong  bearers, 
and  enclosed  within  a  planed  and 
grooved  partition  of  inch  boards, 
which  will  extend  three  feet  above 


the  top.  The  steps  to  be  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  of  oak.  Stairs 
will  lead  to  the  cellar  on  the  inside,  made  in  the  usual  manner  of  such 
stairs.  Closets  will  be  made  where  drawn  on  the  plan,  and  neatly  shelved. 
Pin  rails  will  be  put  up  in  the  clothes  rooms,  and  a  sufficient  number  best 
quality  clothes  hooks  properly  secured  to  same. 

WINDOWS. 

The  window  frames  will  be  made  with  double  boxes,  and  plank  archi¬ 
traves,  according  to  the  plan.  The  sash  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  hung 
with  the  best  sash  cord,  pulley  and  weights.  Inside  pannel  shutters  or 
blinds  will  be  made  for  all  the  windows,  and  hung  with  two  folds  to  a  jamb 
without  boxes,  and  secured  with  inside  shutter  hooks. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  doors  will  be  made  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick,  and 
moulded  on  one  side,  hung  with  four  by  four  inch  butts,  and  secured  with 
eight  inch  rim  knob  locks.  The  inside  room  doors  will  be  one  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  moulded,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and  a  half  inch 
butts,  and  secured  with  three  inch  mortice  locks.  The  closet  doors  will  be 
one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  hung  with  three  inch  butts,  and  secured 
with  the  best  closet  locks. 

DRESSINGS. 

The  jamb  casings  will  be  inch  thick,  with  hanging  stiles  three  inches 
wide,  and  a  two  inch  moulding  to  cover  the  joint  of  plastering. 

The  sides  of  the  School-rooms  will  be  wainscoted  the  height  of  the  win¬ 
dow  sills,  and  be  capped  on  the  top ;  at  the  windows  the  inside  sill  will 
finish  the  same. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


77 


VENTIDUCTS. 

Ventiducts  will  be  inserted  in  the  walls,  and  the  front  will  be  of 
strong  inch  boards,  screwed  on  to  grounds  secured  to  the  walls ;  there 
will  be  an  opening  at  the  top  and  bottom,  with  shutters  to  the  same. 
A  horizontal  shaft  of  the  capacity  of  both  will  be  made  in  the  loft,  to  con¬ 
nect  with  the  cupola  or  belfry,  as  a  ventilator.  The  vertical  ducts  to  be 
six  by  twenty-four  inches  in  the  clear. 

CELLAR,  &c. 

A  set  of  cellar  door  cheeks,  sill  and  cellar  door  will  be  made,  and  hung 
with  straps  and  hooks,  and  fastened  with  hasp  and  padlock.  A  strong  step 
ladder  will  be  secured  in  the  cellar  way.  Outside  steps,  of  wood,  will  be 
made,  and  a  movable  step  ladder  to  lead  up  to  the  belfry. 

TIN  ROOFING. 

The  roof  will  be  overlaid  with  the  best  quality  cross  leaded  roofing  tin> 
put  on  standing  grooves,  and  well  cleated  to  the  boards ;  gutters  will  be 
formed  on  the  roof,  and  four  three  inch  conductors  will  be  required,  with 
shoes  at  the  bottom.  The  tin  to  be  painted  two  coats,  the  first  to  be  red  lead. 

PLASTERING. 

All  the  walls  and  ceilings  will  be  lathed,  and  plastered  two  coats  of 
brown  mortar,  and  one  of  hard  white  finish.  The  mortar  to  be  composed 
of  clean  sharp  sand,  and  wood  burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered 
hair.  The  jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  plastered,  and  angles  rounded. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted,  will  be  painted  with  three  coats  of  pure 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  and  finished  in  such  tints  as  directed.  The  sash 
will  be  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded,  sprigged  and  puttied. 
The  size  of  the  glass  will  be  ten  by  fifteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  to  a  frame. 

PRIVY  AND  FENCING. 

The  well  will  be  squared  up,  and  a  building  eight  by  twelve  feet,  of 
brick,  will  be  erected  over  the  same ;  the  walls  above  the  floor  will  be  tour 
inches  thick,  to  be  covered  with  shingles,  and  batten  doors  to  be  hung, 
and  secured  with  latches  and  bolts.  A  partition  will  be  put  up  in  the  cen¬ 
tre,  and  each  part  neatly  fitted  up  with  seats  and  risers.  The  partition 
walls  and  ceiling  will  be  plastered,  and  the  wood  work  painted  in  a  proper 
manner.  Fencing  will  be  put  up,  dividing  the  yards,  as  directed  by  the 
Directors  or  committee. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  are  all  to  be  of  the  best  quality.  The  lumber  to  be  well 
seasoned,  and  all  requisite  hardware,  to  be  furnished,  to  complete  the  same. 
The  workmanship  to  be  neatly  and  substantially  done,  according  to  the  plan 
and  specification. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building  would  be  two  thousand  six  hundred  dollars. 


78 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


CLASS  III. —  No.  3. 


This  building  will  suit  a  small  town  with  only  one  hundred  and  fifty 
Pupils,  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes.  Each  story  will  accommodate  seventy- 
two  Pupils  and  require  two  Teachers,  a  principal  and  one  assistant,  if  the 
sexes  be  separately  taught.  11  taught  together,  one  principal  and  three  as¬ 


sistants  will  be  required  for  both  rooms.  In  that  case,  the  first  floor  may  be 
devoted  to  the  Primary  Pupils,  and  the  second  to  those  of  the  Grammar 
grade,  males  and  females  together. 


FIRST  STORY. 


% 


□  □  □  LZJ 

l _ J  L_J  1 _ 1  I — _1 

□  lzj  □  □ 

a  □  □  a  □  □ 

□  □  □  nzj  lzj  nn 

a  a  izz!  cm  a  □ 


that  can  be  made  of  such  a  building  will 
room,  to  the  Primary  Pupils,  under  a  pr 


a.  Girls’  entrance  and  approach  to  second 

story. 

b.  Roys’  entrance  and  clothes  room  4  by  10 

feet. 

cc.  Closets  for  books  and  apparatus. 
d.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

c.  Passage  2  feet  wide. 

/.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk  and  platform,  4  by  9  feet. 

II.  Seats  with  closets  under  them  for  maps. 
m.  Cellar  door. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 

The  chief  defect  of  this  plan  is 
the  want  of  recitation  rooms. 
Probably  the  best  arrangement 
be  to  devote  the  first  floor,  in  one 
ineipal  and  an  assistant  Teacher 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


79 


and  to  divide  the  second  story  into  two  rooms,  by  means  of  a  partition,  one 
for  the  first  and  the  other  for  the  second  division  of  the  Grammar  Pupils, 
with  a  Teacher  to  each.  This  will  remedy,  to  a  great  extent,  the  want 


of  class  rooms. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  is  a  building  twenty-seven 
feet  by  thirty-six,  two  stories  high; 
first,  fourteen  feet,  second,  thirteen 
feet,  with  an  additional  wing,  eleven 
by  twenty-four  feet ;  the  pitch  of  the 
roof  is  six  feet. 

SECOND  STORY. 

cc.  Closets. 

/.  Flues. 

£•.  Teacher’s  desk. 

h.  Girls’  clothes  room,  9  by  11  feet. 

1.  Seats  with  closets  under  them  for  maps. 
v.  Ventiducts. 


This  requires  no  full  speci¬ 
fication,  as  the  materials  will 
be  the  same  as  in  No.  2,  and 
the  thickness  of  the  walls  and 
accommodations  generally  the 
same.  The  work  of  the  in¬ 
terior  will  be  the  same  ;  and 
on  the  exterior  it  will  be  ex¬ 
plained  fully  by  the  details  in 
plate  No.  5,  “  Architectural 
Details.” 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building 
would  be  three  thousand  dol¬ 
lars. 


CLASS  III.  —  No  .  4. 

This  is  the  plan  of  a  larger  building  than  that  of  No.  .3-  It  is  to  be  of 
brick,  and  the  main  difference  from  the  last,  consists  in  the  division  of  each 


80 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


floor  into  two  rooms  by  means  of  glass  partitions ;  thus  affording  the 
opportunity  of  having  four  independent  Schools  in  the  same  building,  or  of 


combining  the  whole  together  under  one  principal  Teacher,  on  the  Union 

plan,  as  in  No.  3.  The  chief 
defect  is  the  want  of  class 
rooms. 

FIRST  STORY. 

a.  Entrance  for  girls  and  approach  to  the 
stairs. 

b.  Boys’  entrance  and  clothes  room. 
cc.  Closets  for  books,  Ac. 
dd.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
ee.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warns  air. 
gg.  Teachers’  desks  on  platform  4  by  8  ft. 
k.  Door  in  glass  partition. 
m.  Cellar  door. 
w.  Ventiducts. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  plan  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  last ;  it  will  be  built  of  brick  and 
specified  only  where  it  differs  from  No.  2  of  this  series.  It  is  to  be  twenty- 
eight  feet  by  forty,  with  a  wing  twenty-five  feet,  and  ten  feet  projections ; 
two  stories  high,  first  fourteen,  second  thirteen  feet,  each  in  the  clear ;  and 
pitch  of  roof  six  feet. 

EXCAVATION  AND  MASONRY. 

The  excavations  will  be  the  same  depth  as  in  No.  2,  but  increased  in 
size,  according  to  the  dimensions  of  the  building.  The  cellar  walls  will  be. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


81 


of  stone,  as  in  the  preceding  plan,  up  to  the  level  of  the  ground,  the  same 
thickness,  and  likewise  done  in  the  same  manner.  From  the  stone  walls 
the  remainder  will  be  of  well  burnt  brick,  faced  on  the  exterior  with  the 
best  dark  stretchers,  laid  smoothly,  and  the  joints  neatly  struck.  The  walls 
to  be  eighteen  inches  thick  to  top  of  base,  and  the  remainder  fifteen  inches, 
being  a  thirteen  inch  wall,  with  a  hollow  space  of  two  inches,  between 
the  inside  four  inches,  and  the  outside  thickness,  to  be  carefully  bonded 
together  with  alternate  headers  every  fifth  course.  An  additional  wall, 
or  piers  three  feet  by  eighteen  inches,  will  be  built  in  the  cellar,  under 
the  glass  partitions,  with  the  openings  arched  at  the  head.  The  flues 
will  be  the  same  as  in  No.  2,  and  topped  out  the  usual  height  above 
the  roof.  The  cellar  windows  will 
be  finished  in  the  same  manner. 

will  be  as  in  the 
preceding,  excepting  the  outer 
walls,  which  will  not  be  lathed. 

The  outside  door  sills  will  be  of  cut 
stone. 

SECOND  3TOEY. 

b.  Girls’  clothes  room,  6  by  9  feet. 
cccc.  Closets  for  books  and  apparatus. 
d.  Teachers’  closet. 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 
gg.  Teachers’  desks. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 

CARPENTER  WORK. 

The  joists  of  the  first  and  second  floors  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches, 
backed  and  bridged  as  before  mentioned.  The  first  floor  will  be  supported 
on  the  centre  and  outer  walls ;  and  in  the  second  story  one  end  will  be  on 
the  outer  wall,  and  the  other  supported  by  a  girder  four  by  twelve  inches, 
with  an  iron  post,  two  by  four  inches,  from  the  cellar  wall  upward,  enclosed 
between  the  boxes  of  the  glass  partition.  The  ceiling  joists  will  be  two 
by  twelve  inches,  laid  cross- wise  the  building,  on  the  wall  plates;  all  joists 
and  partitions  to  be  sixteen  inches  between  centres.  The  roof  will  be  con¬ 
structed  with  a  principal  rafter  over  the  glass  partitions,  the  tie  beam 
four  by  twelve,  rafters  four  by  eight,  struts  and  braces  four  by  six.  Three 
iron  rods,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  will  be  required,  and  the 
rafter  well  bolted  at  the  foot  of  the  same.  «A  ridge  pole  three  by  twelve 
inches  will  bear  upon  the  principal  rafter  and  the  end  walls,  and  common 
rafter  in  the  usual  manner,  and  to  heel  upon  a  raising  piece;  the  rafters  to 
be  two  feet  between  centres,  and  the  usual  cut,  to  bfe  boarded  and  prepared 
for  covering  with  metal.  The  eave,  cupola  and  front  window  heads,  will 
11 


The  plastering 


82 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


bo  in  accordance  with  the  details  in  plate  No.  8,  “  Architectural  Details.” 
The  window  frames  will  all  be  plank  face,  double  hung,  with  sash  as  in  the 

preceding;  the  heads  of  the 
front  frames  will  be  of  wood ; 
shutters  will  be  hung  on  the 
outside  (or  blinds,)  one  and  a 
half  inches  thick,  moulded  on 
one  side,  hung  with  straps  and 
hoops,  and  secured  with  nine 
inch  shutter  bolts.  The  sash  • 
partitions  will  be  as  in  No.  1, 

•  of  this  class.  The  remaining 
portion  of  the  carpenter  work 
will  be  similar  to  No.  2,  as  be¬ 
fore  mentioned.  Black-boards 
live  feet  in  height,  and  extend¬ 
ing  from  window  to  window, 
in  each  end  of  the  building, 
will  be  placed  on  each  floor, 
of  such  material  as  the  Directors  may  select. 

ROOF  AND  PAINTING. 

The  roof  will  be  covered  with  the  same  material,  and  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  in  No.  2.  The  painting,  glazing,  and  size  of  glass,  the  same  as  in 
No.  2,  and  privy  and  fencing  accordingly. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  work  and  materials  will  be  of  the  same  kind  as  in  the  plans,  referred 
to,  and  every  thing  necessary  to  complete  the  building  in  all  its  parts,  will 
be  according  to  the  same,  and  the  changes  set  forth  in  the  above  specifica¬ 
tion. 

ESTIMATE. 

A  building,  according  to  this  plan,  would  cost  three  thousand  three  hun¬ 
dred  dollars. 


CLASS  1 1 1 .  —  N  o  .  5  . 

The  plan  now  presented  is  for  a  building  twice  the  capacity  of  the  last. 
As  arranged,  it  will  seat  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  Pupils.  That  num¬ 
ber  should  have  six  Teachers —  a  principal  and  five  assistants,  on  the  Union 
plan  ;  or,  if  the  sexes  be  separated,  two  principals  with  two  assistants  to 
each.  An  improvement  on  this  plan,  as  prepared  by  the  artist,  would  be 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS 


83 

effected  by  the  extension  of  the  platforms  across  the  whole  side  of  the 


building,  where  they  are  now  shown,  with  an  equal  extent  of  black¬ 
board. 

FIRST  STORY. 

a.  Entrance  to  the  second  story  for  girts. 

b.  Bovs  entrance  to  first  story,  and  clothes 

room,  extending  to  foot  of  stairs  at 
a,  where  a  door  is-  intended  to  ba 
hung. 

ec.  Passages  twp  feet  wide. 
dd.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  eaeh. 
ee.  Teachers’  desks,  and  platforms. 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 
gggg.  Closets  for  books  and  apparatus. 
h.  Door  way  in  the  glass  partition. 
m.  Cellar  door. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 

The  arrangement  of  desks,  in  the  plan  of  the  first  story  of  this  building, 
admits  of  improvement.  The  practice  of  placing  one  end  of  a  desk  against 
the  wall  of  a  building  is  not  a  good  one.  It  brings  the  Pupil  who  sits  at 
it  too  near  the  cold  wall,  and  embarrasses  the  motion  of  his  arm  while 
writing,  &c.  But  the  chief  objection  is,  that  it  deprives  him  of  that  access 
to  his  own  seat  without  disturbing  any  other  person,  which  every  Pupil  in 
School  should  possess.  The  better  plan  would  therefore  be,  to  make  five 
passages  or  aisles  instead  of  four  :  —  there  being  eight  feet  now  allowed  for 
passages,  this  would  give  full  nineteen  inches  to  each ;  or,  a  still  better 


m 


□ 
d ! 
□ 
d 
□ 
□ 
d 
d 
d 


d  d 
d  d 
d  d 
d  d 
d  □ 
d  d 
d  d 
d  d 
d  d 


dl  d  d 
d  d  d 
d  d  d  di 
di  d  d 
d  dcd 
d  □□ 
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id  □□[ 

d  d  d 
/ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


84 

arrangement  might  be  effected,  by  making  the  central  passage  full  two  feet 
wide,  and  the  others,  eighteen  inches. 

SPECIFICATION. 

These  represent  the  ground  plan  of  a  building  forty-four  feet  square  ;  two 
stories  high,  first  fourteen,  and  second  thirteen  feet ;  each  in  the  clear. 

MASONRY. 

This  house  is  to  be  built  of  stone  and  stuccoed ;  but  if  brick  is  the  most 
convenient  material  in  the  neighborhood,  the  style  will  suit  very  well  for 
that  article ;  and  in  such  case,  the  walls  would  be  similar  to  No.  4,  of  the 
same  class,  excepting  that  the  pilasters  would  project  four  inches,  as  there 
laid  down.  If  built  of  stone,  the  cellar  walls,  and  up  to  the  line  of  the 
base,  will  be  the  same  thickness  as  No.  2,  of  this  class,  and  the  same  thick¬ 
ness  continued  in  the  pilaster ;  but  in  the  recesses  the  walls  will  be  sixteen 
inches,  and  laid  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  same  kind  of  materials  as  in 
the  plan  aforesaid.  The  cellar  openings  will  be  secured  in  like  manner. 
The  partition  between  the  School-rooms  and  stair-way,  will  be  of  brick, 
above  the  first  floor ;  the  flues  all  well  pargeted  and  topped  out  the  usual 
height  above  the  roof.  The  ventiducts  will  be  inserted  in  the  walls,  as  dis- 

cribed  in  No.  2,  and  those  for  the  sec¬ 
ond  story  will  be  secured  directly  in. 
front  of  the  first,  and  made  likewise  in 
the  same  manner,  each  six  by  twen¬ 
ty-eight  inches  in  the  clear.  The  out¬ 
side  door  sills  will  be  of  cut  stone, 
eighteen  inches  on  the  top  face,  and 
eight  inch  rise. 

SECOND  STORY. 

а.  Teachers’  room. 

б.  Clothes  room,  seven  by  nine  feet, 
c.  Entry. 

ee.  Teachers’  desks,  and  platforms. 
vv.  Ventiducts. 

CARPENTER  WORK. 

The  joists  and  roof  timbers  will  be  the  same  sizes,  and  constructed  simi¬ 
larly  to  the  plan  referred  to,  excepting  that  in  this  case,  both  ends  of  the 
principal  rafter,  or  girder,  are  leveled,  forming  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  The 
framing  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  section  of  the  building.  The  rafters 
will  be  boarded  and  prepared  for  covering  with  metal.  The  window  dres¬ 
sings  on  the  front,  and  the  corbels  between  the  pilasters,  and  the  sills  and 
eave  will  be  of  wood,  and  fully  explained  by  details  of  the  same,  in  plate 
No.  5,  “  Architectural  Details.”  The  window  frames  will  be  made  with 
inside  shutters,  as  described  in  No.  2.  The  partitions  dividing  the  rooms 
will  be  of  sash,  double  hung,  as  before  explained;  but  in  the  first  story 
every  other  post  or  box  will  be  formed  with  an  iron  pillar  in  the  centre, 


construction  of  schools  for  small  towns. 


85 


and  the  boxes  formed  around,  as  will  be  explained  by  details  in  plate  Iso. 
12,  “Architectural  Details.” 

The  floors  will  be  of  heart  pine,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  planed 
and  grooved,  well  nailed  to  the  joists  and  the  joints  shot.  The  stairs  will 
be  constructed  where  they  are 
shown  on  the  plan,  with  bearers 
three  inches  in  thickness.  Steps 
one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick, 
of  oak  or  ash ;  risers  of  the  same 
material,  to  be  enclosed  within 
a  grooved  partition  of  one  and  a 
half  inch  plank,  continued  three 
feet  above  the  second  floor,  and 
capped  on  the  top.  Black-boards 
twenty  feet  long  and  five  feet 
high  to  be  put  in  each  of  the 
four  rooms,  at  such  places  as  the 
Directors  shall  order.  Closets, 
inside  dressings,  doors,  wainscoting,  rails  for  maps  and  clothes  pins,  outside 
steps,  and  cellar  door  and  ladder,  privies  and  fencing  will  be  according  to 
plan  No.  2.  The  roof  will  be  covered  with  tin  of  the  same  quality,  and 
done  in  the  same  manner,  as  in  No.  6  of  Class  I. 

plastering,  painting  and  glazing. 

The  plastering,  and  rough-cast¬ 
ing,  to  be  done  as  in  No.  2,  and  in 
this  plan  the' exterior  to  be  laid  off 
in  blocks,  in  imitation  of  cut  stone, 
and  tinted  as  directed.  The  paint¬ 
ing  and  glazing  in  like  manner,  and 
the  glass  of  the  same  size,  as  in  the 
plan  referred  to.  All  the  materials 
to  be  as  specified,  or  referred  to  in 
No.  2 ;  and  every  thing  required  to 
complete  the  building  to  be  furnish¬ 
ed  by  the  contractor,  at  his  own 
cost  and  expense ;  and  the  workmanship  of  the  different  parts  to  be  done 
in  the  best  and  most  substantial  manner. 

estimate. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  according  to  the  plans,  would  be  three  thou¬ 
sand  five  hundred  dollars. 

inote  — -  In  the  foregoing  plans  no  reference  has  been  made  to  heating  by  means  of  furnaces  in  the  cellar;  but 
in  all  the  plans  of  this  class,  the  flues  are  intended  to  be  so  constructed,  that  it  shall  be  optional  with  the  com¬ 
mittee,  to  adopt  either  furnaces  or  stoves  in  the  School-rooms. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECT  U  ll£ 


Sb 


CLASS  III.  — No.  6  . 

This  is  a  view,  with  plans,  of  the  new  Common  School-house,  now  in 
progress  of  construction  in  Lewisburg,  Union  County.  It  is  quite  a  hand¬ 
some  edifice,  and  allows  unusual  space  for  the  number  of  Pupils  intended 
to  be  seated.  The  height  of  the  ceilings  and  the  provision  for  ventilation 
are  both  quite  ample ;  and  the  “Directors’  office”  on  the  second  floor,  is  a 
most  useful  and  convenient  addition.  Here  may  be  kept  the  records  and 
papers  of  the  Board  to  be  used  at  their  meetings,  and  a  library  of  text  and 
educational  books  may  be  gradually  collected,  which  will  be  found  of  great 
advantage  for  reference.  The  double  stair-way  is  also  worthy  of  all  com¬ 
mendation.  The  Architect  is  Henry  Pv.  Noll. 


A  building  of  this  size,  and  designed  for  no  greater  number  of  Pupils 
than  indicated  by  the  seats  in  the  plan,  would  admit  of  a  class-room  being 
partitioned  oft'  each  main  apartment,  and  still  leave  space  enough  for  the 
Pupils.  Such  a  change,  with  a  corresponding  alteration  in  the  mode  of  in¬ 
struction,  might  be  desirable  in  some  places. 

Some  other  parts  of  the  interior  arrangements,  would  also  seem  to  admit 
of  slight  modification.  If  along  platform  for  the  Teacher,  with  an  equal 
length  of  black-board  behind  it,  were  placed  along  the  partition  next  the 
stair-way,  and  the  Pupils’  seats  faced  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  they 
now  occupy,  the  fifty,  designed  to  be  seated,  would  be  equally  well  accom- 
mdated  as  to  room,  with  much  pleasanter  light  and  greater  space  of  black¬ 
board.  A  door  or  doors  might,  also,  be  put  in  each  main  partition,  so  as 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOR  SMALL  TOWNS. 


87 


to  admit  of  both  rooms  on  the  same  floor  being  placed  under  one  principal 
Teacher,  on  the  Union  plan,  if  thought  expedient. 


SPECIFICATION. 


This  building  measures  fifty  feet  on  the  front  and  forty-eight  feet  deep. 
The  elevation  of  the  first  floor  is  two  feet ;  the  height  of  the  first  story  four¬ 
teen  feet,  and  the  second  thirteen,  each  in  the  clear;  and  the  pitch  of  roof 


twelve  feet.  It  somewhat  resem¬ 
bles  No.  5  of  this  class,  in  the 
interior  arrangements,  excepting 
that  in  this,  there  are  two  flights 
of  stairs.  It  is  built  of  brick 
above  the  level  of  the  ground, 
and  in  the  cellar  of  good  building 
stone. 

GROUND  PLAN  01?  FIRST  STORY. 

aa.  Entrance  to  the  stairs  and  second  story. 

bb.  Entrance  to  the  first  story. 

cc.  Platforms  for  Teachers’  desks. 

dd.  Seats  for  two  Pupil3  each. 

ee.  Passages  three  feet  wide. 

f.  Flues  for  gas  or  smoke. 

vvvv.  Ventilating  flues. 


THE  EXCAVATIONS 


And  the  exterior  walls  will  be  the  same  as  in  No.  4  of  this  class,  ex¬ 
cepting  at  the  pilasters  in  front,  which  project  twelve  inches,  and  form  the 
pediment  and  the  entablature,  which  is  of  brick,  and  projects  one  inch  from 
the  face  of  the  wall.  A  plain  projecting  base  is  continued  around  the 
building.  A  partition  wall  of  stone  sixteen  inches  thick,  will  be  built  in  the 
cellar  and  continued  up  to  t'.e  roof  of  brick,  nine  inches  thick.  Flues  for 
smoke,  warm  air  or  ventilation 
will  be  built  in  the  walls,  where 
shown  in  the  ground  plans,  and 
smoothly  plastered  on  the  inside, 
of  the  same  size  as  in  preced¬ 
ing  numbers  of  this  class.  The 
sills,  steps  and  platforms  of  the 
entrance  doors  will  be  of  cut 
stone. 

SECOND  STORY. 

aa.  Lobby  at  landing  of  stairs. 
b.  Directors’  office, 
y.  Flues  for  smoke  or  gas. 
vv.  Ventilating  flues. 


88 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  joists  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  plan  No.  5,  before  mentioned,  but 
the  bearing  will  be  on  the  partition  walls,  instead  of  the  girders ;  and  in 

this  building  principal  raf¬ 
ters  will  not  be  required. 
Diagonal  rafters  will  be 
three  by  twelve  inch  joist, 
jack  rafters  three  by  five, 
two  feet  between  centres,  to 
bear  upon  a  wall  plate  at 
one  end,  and  secured  to  the 
diagonals  at  the  other.  The 
partition  wall  supports  the 
centre  of  the  roof ;  the  roof 
will  be  covered  with  the 
best  white  pine  shingles. 
The  eave  and  cornice  will 
be  the  same  as  in  No.  7, 
Class  IV.  The  cupola  and 
entrance  door-way  will  be 


in  accordance  with  the  elevation.  Excepting  the  partitions  dividing  the 
School-rooms,  the  remaining  work  and  materials  will  he  the  same  as  No.  5, 
Class  III,  in  every  particular,  viz :  floors,  stairs,  window  frames,  shutters 
and  sash,  wainscoting,  black-boards,  wash-board,  doors  and  dressings,  map 
and  pin  rails,  clothes  hooks,  cellar  door,  ladder  up  to  the  roof,  and  privies 
and  fencing. 

The  painting  and  glazing  will  also  be  done  in  like  manner ;  the  glass  of 
the  first  story  will  be  twelve  by  twenty-two,  and  for  the  second  story  twelve 
by  twenty  inches. 

The  work  and  materials  will  be  of  the  best  quality  for  the  different  kinds 
of  work,  and  every  thing  necessary  to  complete  the  building  in  all  its  parts 
to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor,  according  to  the  plan  and  specifications 
referred  to. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  as  being  erected  in  Lewisburg,  is  three  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SCHOOLS  FOlt  SMALL  TOWNS 


by 


GLASS  III.  —  No.  7. 

The  ground  plan  of  this  building  being  similar  to  that  of  No.  4  of  this 
class,  and  the  material  the  same,  reference  is  made  to  that  plan  for  the 


interior  arrangements,  and  to  the  specification  for  details  of  construction, 
with  regard  to  interior  finish.  The  exterior  is  to  be  finished  in  accordance 

with  the  elevation  and  details  of  the 
same,  as  here  shown,  and  with  plate 
No.  7,  “  Architectural  Details.” 

The  dimensions  of  the  building 
are  twenty-seven  by  forty-four  feet, 
with  a  projecting  wing  twenty-five 
by  ten  feet;  two  stories  high  — 
first  fourteen  feet,  and  second  thir¬ 
teen  :  elevation  of  the  first  floor 
two  feet,  and  pitch  of  roof  nine 
feet. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building,  includ¬ 
ing  a  beater  in  the  cellar,  will  be 
four  thousand  five  hundred  dollars. 


12 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


90 


V.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


ON  HIE  SIZEjjjFORM,  MATERIAL  AND  INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  KINDS 

OF  SCHOOL  HOUSES  REQUIRED  IN  LARGE  TOWNS  AND  CITIES,  WITH  DRAWINGS,  PLANS, 

SPECIFICATIONS  AND  ESTIMATES  OF  EACH  KIND. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  all  the  plans  in  this  class  are  exclusively 
fitted  or  designed  for  cities  and  the  larger  towns.  On  the  contrary,  several 
of  them  may,  with  advantage,  be  adopted  in  the  smaller  county  seats  and 
other  towns  with  from  two  to  three  hundred  Pupils;  but,  as  some  general 
classification  was  necessary,  the  one  selected  appeared  to  he  sufficiently 
definite  for  the  purpose  of  methodical  arrangement  and  easy  reference. 

The  smaller  of  the  houses  in  this  class,  will  suit  those  towns  of  considera¬ 
ble  size,  in  which  the  system  of  gradation  is  adopted,  without  the  strict 
Union  feature.  If  the  different  grades  of  Schools  he  separated  from  each 
other,  but  all  or  several  of  the  same  grade  be  placed  in  the  same  building, 
then  the  smaller  houses  in  this  class,  and  the  larger  ones  in  Class  III,  will 
be  found  suitable,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  the  grades 
of  School  to  be  accommodated. 

The  houses  in  this  class  are  all  of  greater  cost,  and  most  of  them,  of  larger 
dimensions  than  those  in  the  third  class.  The  increased  cost,  even  when 
the  size  is  no  greater,  is  owing  to  superior  finish  and  the  greater  convenience 
of  interior  arrangements.  In  these  plans,  for  instance,  an  ample  provision 
of  class-room  will  be  frequently  found,  and  double  stair  ways  are  provided 
fur  in  nearly  every  instance.  The  exterior  appearance  will  also  be  gen¬ 
erally  found  more  attractive. 

With  regard  to  the  size  of  these  houses,  it  may  be  remarked,  that,  in 
selecting,  Directors  should  generally  adopt  those  of  larger  dimensions  than 
are  actually  necessary  for  the  present  number  of  youth  to  be  accommodated. 
All  our  towns  are  increasing,  and  many  of  them  very  rapidly,  in  popula¬ 
tion  ;  and  there  can  be  no  error  in  that  prudent  foresight  which  provides 
for  this  increase.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule,  are  those  instances  in 
which  Directors  have  adopted  the  plan  of  erecting  separate  and  additional 
School  buildings,  whenever  required  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of  Scho¬ 
lars  to  be  accommodated.  In  such  cases,  houses  of  a  certain  size  and  plan 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


91 


for  each  grade  may  be  adopted,  suitable  to  the  exact  number  to  be  admit¬ 
ted  in  each. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  in  these,  as  in  all  the  other  buildings  described 
in  this  Manual,  the  artist  has  indicated  the  number  and  position  of  the 
Pupils’  desks,  and  that  in  every  case  double  desks,  (or  desks  for  two  Pupils,) 
are  represented.  It  must  not  be  inferred  from  this,  either  that  the  precise 
arrangement  of  the  desks  here  shown  is  the  best  that  can  possibly  be  made, 
or  that  the  double  desk  is  recommended  to  be  used  in  every  case.  On  the 
contrary,  the  arrangement  of  the  furniture  of  a  School-room  admits  of 
great  variety ;  and  the  practical  Teacher,  after  all,  will  be  the  best  person 
to  direct  how  it  should  be  made,  and,  being  more  interested  than  any  one 
else  in  this  matter,  his  advice  should  have  a  controlling  influence. 

As  to  desks,  it  will  probably  be  found  that  double  ones  for  Primary  and 
most  Grammar  Scholars  are  the  more  suitable,  but  that  in  the  High  and  in 
some  Grammar  Schools,  the  single  desk  is  preferable,  and  should  be  used 
when  space  serves,  and  the  means  of  the  District  will  bear  the  additional 
expense. 

Class-rooms  also  require  their  appropriate  furniture,  but  it  has  not  been 
thought  expedient  to  add  the  ground  plan  of  a  room  of  this  kind  to  the 
description  of  each  building,  or  to  lengthen  the  work  by  repeating  the  de¬ 
tails  of  it  in  every  instance.  Under  the  head  of  “  School-room  Furniture,” 
the  plan  of  a  recitation  room,  with  seats,  platform,  black-board,  &c.,  will  be 
found,  together  with  some  remarks  on  the  whole  subject,  which  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  As  the  furniture  of  the  several  houses  in  this  Manual 
is  not  included  in  the  specifications,  nor  intended  to  be  embraced  in  the 
contract  for  their  erection,  except  such  fixed  articles  as  platforms  and  black¬ 
boards,  the  details  of  the  class-room  will  come  in  more  appropriately  in  the 
division  relating  to  furniture. 

Many  plans  of  privies  will  be  found  in  this  and  the  preceding  classes. 
The  matter  is  one  deserving  great  care.  At  the  end  of  this  class  some 
general  remarks  upon  it  will  be  found,  with  suggestions  as  to  proper  form, 
arrangement  and  location  and  as  to  the  necessity  and  good  effect,  in  regard 
both  to  health  and  decency,  of  proper  attention  to  this  point. 

Most  of  the  houses  in  this  class  are  surmounted  by  a  belfry.  This  is  a 
most  suitable  and  convenient  addition,  which  should  never  be  omitted  in 
School  buildings  of  the  larger  sizes. 


92 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


CLASS  IV. —  No.  1. 

This  building  is  arranged  for  two  hundred  and  fifty-two  Pupils  —  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  on  each  floor.  It  is  liberally  provided  with  recita¬ 
tion  rooms,  and,  with  a  greater  extent  of  platform  and  black-board,  will  be 
found  very  convenient  for  a  small  Union  School,  with  one  principal  and 
three  or  four  assistants ;  or  for  two  primary  or  two  secondary  Schools,  each 


with  two  or  three  Teachers,  under  the  separate  system.  If  the  black-board 
and  platform  be  extended  across  the  whole  of  the  end,  where  the  latter  is 
shown  on  the  ground  plans,  two  of  the  end  windows  might  be  transferred, 
one  to  each  side. 

SPECIFICATION. 

The  following  ground  plans  are  those  of  a  building  fifty  feet  by  forty ; 
two  stories  high,  first  fourteen  and  second  thirteen  feet,  each  in  the  clear  of 
floor  and  ceiling;  and  elevation  of  the  first  floor  two  feet. 

This  plan  being  the  first  of  the  fourth  class,  a  full  specification  will  be 
given.  The  material  of  the  building  should  be  of  brick.  For  the  de¬ 
scription  and  interior  arrangements,  reference  will  be  had  to  the  plans  and 
drawings  of  the  same,  and  to  the  specifications  and  details. 

EXCAVATION. 

The  excavation  of  the  cellar  will  be  throughout  the  extent  of  the  building, 
and  seven  feet  deep  in  the  clear  of  floor  and  lower  edge  of  joists.  A  cellar  door 
way  will  be  dug  where  marked  on  the  plan,  and  trenches  for  the  foundations, 
eight  inches  below  the  cellar  level.  A  well  eight  feet  in  diameter,  circular, 
and  twelve  feet  deep  will  be  dug  for  the  privy  and  walled  up  dry,  with  four 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


93 


inches  of  hard  brick  work.  All  requisite  grading  will  be  done  around  the 
building,  and  the  surplus  earth  and  rubbish,  collected  in  and  about  the  same, 
will  be  removed  to  such  place  as  the  committee  shall  direct,  and  the  premises 
made  fit  for  occupancy. 


FIRST  STORY. 

a.  Main  entrance. 

b.  Lobby  and  entry  five  feet  wide. 
cc.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 

d.  Class-room  sixteen  by  twenty  feet. 

e.  Clothes  room  for  boys  or  recitation, 

eleven  by  sixteen  feet. 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  or  warm  air. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk  on  a  platform  4  by  10  ft. 

h.  Main  School-room,  thirty  by  twenty- 

six  feet  in  the  clear. 
lc.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
nn.  Seats  for  four  Pupils  each,  and  closet 
under  for  maps,  &c. 

vv.  Ventilators,  two  in  the  large  room  8 
by  24  inches,  and  one  in  the  class 
room,  6  by  24  inches. 


MASONRY, 

The  cellar  walls,  up  to  the  level  of  the  pavement,  will  be  built  of  goo.l 
quarry  building  stone,  laid  on  their  broadest  beds,  and  solidly  bedded  in 
mortar;  the  outer  walls  will  be  twenty  inches  thick,  and  the  cross  wall 
sixteen  inches,  with  arched  openings  directly  under  those  of  the  first  story; 
and  from  the  level  of  the  pavement  upwards,  the  wall  will  be  built  of  well 
burnt  brick.  The  front  will  be  faced  with  the  best  pressed  brick,  the 
flanks  and  rear  With  good  dark  stretchers ;  the  window  heads  will  be  arched, 
with  a  projection  of  two  inches  from  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  wall,  from 
the  pavement  line  up  to  the  level  of  the  floor,  will  be  eighteen  inches  thick, 
and  capped  between  the  pilasters  with  moulded  brick ;  the  walls  in  the  re¬ 
cesses  will  be  fourteen  inches  thick,  and  the  pilasters  eighteen,  the  differ¬ 
ence  projecting  on  the  outer  surface  ;  the  partition  wall  forming  the  large 
School-rooms  will  be  nine  inches  thick  from  the  level  of  the  first  floor  up¬ 
wards.  Flues  for  gas  and  warm  air  will  be  built  where  marked,  thoroughly 
pargeted,  and  those  for  gas  topped  out  two  feet  above  the  apex  of  the  roof. 
The  flues  for  ventilation  will  be  inserted  in  the  walls,  smoothly  plastered  on 
the  inside. 


The  mortar  for  all  the  above  work  must  be  composed  of  clean  sharp 
sand  and  wood  burnt  lime.  Cast  iron  window  screens  will  be  built  in  the 
openings  of  the  cellar  for  light  and  air. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  joists  of  the  first  and  second-story  large  rooms  will  be  three  by  four¬ 
teen,  and  those  of  the  other  portions  three  by  twelve,  and  all  placed  sixteen 
inches  between  centres ;  a  tension  rod  will  be  put  in,  of  one  and  a  quarter 
inch  round  iron,  with  two  lines  of  cross  bridging  well  secured  to  the  same, 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


94 


all  to  be  backed  and  blocked  up  their  whole  bearing  on  the  walls ;  one 
principal  rafter  will  be  required;  tie  beam  five-  by  twelve,  rafter  five  by 
nine,  braces  and  struts  five  by  five  inches,  framed  with  one  and  a  quarter 
inch  iron  rods,  as  shown  in  the  section  of  No.  5,  Class  III.  The  diagonal 
rafters  forming  the  valleys  will  be  three  by  ten,  and  the  jack  rafters  three 
by  five  inches,  placed  two  feet  between  centres;  the  ceiling  joists  will  be 
two  by  ten  inches,  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  to  be  placed  longitudi¬ 
nally,  bearing  on  the  walls  and  on  the  tie  beam  of  the  principal  rafter,  in 


which  case  the  tie  beam  will  be  cleated,  and  the  joists  will  be  notched  and 


well  secured  to  the  same;  the 
trimmers  of  the  llooring  joists 
will  all  be  double,  and  pinioned 
together. 

SECOND  STORY. 

cc.  Closets. 

d.  Class-room. 

e.  Teacher’s  room. 

ff.  Flues  for  gas  and  warm  air. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk. 

h.  Clothes  room  for  girls. 
k.  Entry  five  feet  wide. 

nn.  Seats,  same  as  first  story. 
vv.  Ventilators,  same  as  first  story. 


The  rafters  will  be  covered  and  otherwise  properly  prepared  for  covering 
with  metal. 


WINDOWS. 


All  the  windows  will  be  made  plank  face,  with  sub-sills  of  heart  pine 
nailed  on  them ;  sash  all  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  double  hung  with  the 
best  pulleys,  patent  cord  and  weights ;  inside  shutters  or  blinds,  in  four  folds, 
will  be  made  and  hung  in  tfie  usual  manner,  to  fold  against  the  window 
jambs  without  boxes,  and  fastened  on  the  inside  with  a  wooden  bar. 

FLOOR. 

Floors  will  be  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  heart  pine,  planed  and  grooved, 
well  nailed  to  the  joists  and  joints  shot;  the  platforms  will  be  laid  in  the 
same  manner. 


EAVE,  &c. 

The  eave,  brackets  and  cornice  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  details  in 
plate  No.  8,  M  Architectural  Details.” 

STAIRS. 

The  stairs  will  be  built  on  strong  bearers  of  three  inch  joists ;  steps  of 
ash  or  oak,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  and  enclosed  within  a  partition 
of  one  and  a  half  inch  plank,  (planed  and  grooved)  up  to  the  second  floor, 
and  above  that  by  a  plastered  partition,  and  skirted  on  the  wall  side  ;  on 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


95 


both  sides  a  rail  of  cherry  plank  will  be  secured  to  the  wall  with  iron  stays. 
The  stairs  to  the  cellar  will  be  under  these,  and  built  in  the  usual  manner. 

PARTITIONS-. 

All  the  partitions  not  of  brick,  excepting  that  of  the  stair,  (first  story,) 
will  be  of  three  by  four  inch  scantling,  placed  sixteen  inches  between 
centres  and  well  secured  at  the  floor  and  ceilings. 


WAINSCOTING. 


All  the  walls  and  partitions  of  th( 
scoted  three  feet  in  height,  with 
planed  and  groved  boards,  verti¬ 
cally,  and  capped  on  the  top ;  the 
inside  sills  of  the  windows  will  be 
one  inch  thick,  and  to  correspond 
on  the  edge  with  the  capping. 
Two  black-boards  or  other  dark 
surfaces  to  be  approved  by  the  Di¬ 
rectors,  each  of  not  less  than  twen¬ 
ty-five  feet  in  length  by  five  in 
height,  will  be  put  up  where  the 
Board  shall  direct,  and  rails  four  j 
inches  wide,  with  hooks  for  maps,  : 
&e.,  will  be  inserted  all  around  the  i 
such  height  in  the  walls  as  shall  be 


School  and  class-rooms  will  be  wain- 


nain  rooms  and  the  recitation  rooms,  at 
ordered. 


VENTILATORS. 

The  ventilators  will  be  boarded  neatly  on  the  front,  by  securing  the 
same  to  strips  or  grounds  put  up  before  the  walls  are  plastered,  with  regis¬ 
ters  top  and  bottom  in  each  story,  and  continued  to  the  roof  with  horizon¬ 
tal  shafts,  of  capacity  equal  to  all  the  vertical  ducts,  and  capped  on  the  top 
with  an  approved  ventilator. 

JAMBS  AND  DRESSINGS. 

All  the  door  jambs  will  be  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  with  beaded 
hanging  stile,  four  inches  wide,  and  a  moulding  two  inches  by  one,  cover¬ 
ing  the  joint  of  plastering. 

CLOSETS. 

Closets  will  be  made  where  they  are  marked,  and  neatly  shelved.  Pin 
rails  will  also  be  put  up  in  the  clothes  rooms,  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
clothes  hooks  of  the  most  approved  kind.  Where  there  is  no  wainscoting, 
wash  boards  will  be  put,  eight  inches  wide,  including  a  moulding  on 
the  top. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  door  will  be  in  pairs,  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick, 


9G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


hung  to  open  outwards  in  the  jambs,  with  four  inch  butts,  and  secured  with 
iron  flush-bolts  on  the  centre  joint,  and  an  eight  inch  rim  lock  ;  to  be  pan¬ 
elled  as  in  the  elevation.  All  the  room  doors  will  be  one  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  flat  panel  and  moulded,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  inch  by 
three  and  a  half  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  cottage  rim  locks.  All  the 
closets  and  cellar  stair  doors  will  be  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  moulded 
on  one  side,  bead  and  butt  on  the  other,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  inch 
butts  and  secured  with  good  locks  and  knob  latches,  and  a  bolt  on  the  cellar 
door;  cheeks,  sill  and  cellar  door  of  heart  pine,  will  be  made  and  put  up 
at  the  door-way,  (the  door  to  be  hung  with  straps  and  hooks,)  and  a  strong 

step  ladder  secured  in  the  same. 

PRIVIES  AND  FENCING. 

The  well  will  be  squared  up  with  brick  work,  and  a  brick  building 
erected  over  the  same  eight  by  twelve  feet,  out  to  out,  to  be  divided  into 
two  apartments,  and  to  be  covered  with  shingles ;  doors  to  be  ledged,  and 
hung  with  straps  and  hooks  to  a  frame  of  scantling,  and  secured  with  hitches 
and  hooks  oh  the  inside;  to  be  floored,  and  the  seats  and  risers  neatly  fitted 
up  ;  and  to  be  plastered  and  painted  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  main  build¬ 
ing.  All  requisite  fencing  to  be  put  up  six  feet  high,  with  planed  and 
grooved  boards  and  locust  or  red  cedar  posts,  not  more  than  eight  feet 
apart. 

TIN  ROOFING. 

The  building  will  be  overlaid  with  the  best  quality  cross-leaded  roofing- 
tin,  put  on  standing  grooves,  and  well  cleated  to  the  boards;  the  gutters 
will  be  properly  formed,  and  four  three  inch  conductors  continued  to  the 
ground,  with  shoe  and  spout  stone  at  the  bottom. 

CUT  STONE. 

The  door  sills  and  front  steps  will  he  of  cut  stone,  neatly  dressed,  and 
solidly  and  securely  set ;  two  wrought  iron  scrapers  to  be  supplied  and  se¬ 
cured  at  the  same. 

HARDWARE  AND  PLASTERING. 

All  the  hardware  required  in  the  construction  of  the  building  is  to  be  of 
the  best  quality,  and  every  article  necessary  for  the  completion  of  the  same 
to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor.  All  the  walls  and  ceilings  are  to  be 
plastered  with  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  one  of  hard  white  finish  ; 
the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime,  and 
well  mixed  with  slaughtered  hair,  the  laths  to  be  sound  and  free  from  bark. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  will  receive  three  coats  of  pure  white 
lead  and  linseed  oil,  in  such  tints  of  plain  colors  as  may  be  directed;  the 
front  door  and  frame  will  be  grained  oak,  and  varnished.  All  the  sash  will 
be  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  we  1 1  bedded,  bradded  and  back 
puttied;  the  size  will  be  twelve  by  eighteen  inches,  eighteen  in  each  frame. 


97 


INSTRUCTION  OF  CUT  SCHOOL  MOUssS*. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  are  all  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  to 
be  done  in  the  best  and  most  substantial  manner,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  committee. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan,  would  be  five  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars. 


CLASS  IV.  —  No.  2. 


This  is  a  beautiful,  commodious  and  substantial  edifice.  Though  the 
plan  only  shows  seats  for  forty-two  Pupils  in  each  room,  it  will  easily  seat 
fifty  with  single,  and  sixty  with  double  desks.  The  whole  building  will 
thus  comfortably  accommodate  from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  forty. 


This  number  will  fully  employ  six  Teachers  —  one  principal  and  five  assis¬ 
tants,  for  the  whole  building ;  or,  one  principal  and  two  assistants,  for  each 
floor.  The  communicating  doors  between  the  main  rooms,  and  the  glass 
partitions  between  the  main  and  class-rooms,  admirably  favor  this  arrange¬ 
ment.  While  two  of  the  Teachers  on  each  floor  are  conducting  recitations 
in  the  class-rooms,  the  third  can  preserve  order  and  promote  the  studies  in 
the  two  main  rooms,  which  will  be,  at  the  same  time,  fully  in  view  of  the 
Teachers  in  the  class-rooms. 

18 


9S 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


In  Schools  of  this  rank  the  largest  provision  of  black-board  should  be 
made.  Five  feet,  in  height,  of  the  partitions  between  all  the  class-rooms, 
commencing  two  feet  from  the  floor,  and  the  whole  length  of  the  partitions, 
should  be  devoted  to  this  purpose.  The  wall  or  partition  at  the  back  of  the 
book  closets,  and  that  opposite  the  stairs,  in  each  main  room,  as  shown  on  the 

ground  plaus  of  both  stories, 
should  also  have  the  same 
height  of  black  surface. 


FIRST  STORT. 

aa.  Entrances. 

bb.  Clothes  rooms. 

cc.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 

dd.  Class-rooms. 

ee.  Passages,  2  and  3  feet  wide. 

ff.  Flues  for  warm  air  and  gas. 

gg.  Seats  for  two  Pnpils  each. 

hh.  Teacher’s  desks. 

kk.  Outside  porches. 

m.  Passage  for  Teachers. 

nn.  Glass  paitition. 

o.  Cellar  door. 

vv.  Ventiducts. 


In  Schools  of  this  kind,  there  is  little  use  or  need  for  a  Teacher’s  plat¬ 
form  and  desk,  except  at  time  of  opening  and  closing  the  exercises.  One 
Teacher  will  necessarily  be  in  charge  of  two  of  the  main  rooms,  if  there 
be  a  Teacher  with  a  class  in  each  recitation  room  at  the  same  time,  and 
while  thus  engaged  will  have  no  time  to  sit.  A  small  platform,  near  the  com¬ 
municating  door  between 
the  main  rooms,  will  thus 
probably  be  found  suffi¬ 
cient,  and  most  suitably 
placed.  This  slight  change 
will  not  only  save  space, 
but  turn  the  eyes  of  the 
Pupils  from  the  light. 


SECOND  STORY- 

aa.  Clothes  rooms. 
bb.  Entrances  or  lobbies. 

The  other  letters  represent  the 
same  parts,  as  in  the  first  story. 

For  the  accommodation  of  greater 
numbers,  the  remaining  plans  in  this 
class  have  all  two  flights  of  stairs. 

SPECIFICATION. 

These  represent  the  plan  of  a  building  measuring  thirty-seven  feet  on  the 
front,  and  forty-seven  deep,  with  projecting  wings  of  twelve  by  twenty- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


99 


three  feet  on  each  side ;  the  first  story  is  fourteen  feet,  and  second  thirteen, 
each  in  the  clear ;  twelve  feet  pitch  of  roof ;  elevation  of  first  floor  two 
feet.  In  this  specification  reference  will  be  made  to  all  similar  work  in  the 
preceding  plan  in  this  class,  and  only  such  materials  and  workmanship  as 
differ  from  it,  will  be  described. 

The  material  in  this  building  is  stone ;  and  for  the  arrangements  of  the 
interior,  reference  will  be  had  to  the  plans  and  explanations  of  the  same. 

EXCAVATION  AND  MASONRY. 

The  excavations  will  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  including  the  well,  as 
in  the  preceding.  The  walls,  from  the  foundations  upwards,  will  be  of 
good  quarry  building  stone,  and  laid  in  a  substantial  manner,  with  mortar 
composed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  and  wood  burnt  lime,  and  the  walls  on  the 
inside  well  dashed  with  the  same  material ;  on  the  exterior  they  will  be 
coated  with  rough-casting,  and  laid  off  in  blocks  in  imitation  of  cut  stone. 
The  thickness  of  the  outer  walls,  up  to  the  line  of  the  first  floor,  will  be 
twenty  inches,  and  all  above  that  line,  eighteen  inches  ;  the  cross  walls  in 
the  cellar  will  be  sixteen  inches,  and  arched  openings  will  be  made  under 
those  of  the  first  story..  From  the  first  floor,  the  partition  forming  the 
stairways  will  be  of  brick,  nine  inches  thick the  partitions  on  the  back 
will  be  of  sash,  with  three  iron  posts  enclosed  within  the  boxes  of  the  same. 
All  the  cellar  window  openings  will  be  secured  with  open  cast  iron  guards ; 
and  all  flues  for  gas  and  warm  air  will  be  built  of  brick,  well  pargeted, 
topped  out  with  smooth  brick  work,  and  painted  and  sanded.  The  front 
door  sills  and  steps,  will  be  of  cut  stone,  smoothly  dressed,  and  solidly  set, 
and  the  outside  porch  paved  with  pressed  brick,  laid  in  mortar. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  all  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  backed,  and  a  line 
of  cross  bridging  secured  through  the  centre  of  the  large  School-room 
floors.  The  ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  nine  inches,  all  placed  sixteen 
between  centres ;  the  diagonal  rafters  forming  the  valleys,  will  be  three  by 
ten  inches,  and  jack  rafters  three  by  five,  placed  two  feet  between  centres, 
and  well  secured  to  wall  plates  of  three  by  nine  inches.  The  rafters  will 
be  lathed  for  slate  if  the  article  is  convenient ;  if  not,  the  building  will  be 
covered  with  the  best  white  pine  shingles,  butted  and  jointed. 

Window  frames  and  the  inside  shutters  and  sash,  will  be  made  the  same 
as  in  No.  1,  of  this  class ;  also  the  floors  and  stairs,  excepting  that  the  plank 
partition  is  to  be  continued  up,  to  form  a  railing  for  the  stairs  on  the  second 
floor.  Partitions  of  scantling  are  to  be  the  same ;  and  in  addition,  those 
separating  the  large  School-room  from  the  class-rooms,  will  be  made  with 
sash,  double  hung,  the  same  as  the  outside  windows ;  and  in  the  partitions 
separating  the  stairways  from  the  School-rooms,  will  be  inserted  windows 


100 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


to  correspond  with  those  of  the  exterior,  and  hung  in  the  same  manner. 
The  section  on  page  85  of  this  Manual,  will  illustrate  the  manner  of  con¬ 
structing  the  partitions  of  sash,  in  connection  with  the  iron  posts  for  the 
support  of  the  doors  above.  The  wainscoting  will  be  the  same,  and  con¬ 
tinued  on  both  sides  of  the  sash  partitions.  The  ventilators,  jambs  and 
dressing  of  doors,  wash  boards,  closets,  platforms,  map  and  pin  rails,  and 
clothes  hooks,  doors,  and  cellar  door,  cheeks,  and  sill,  will  be  done  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  No.  1 . 

Black-board,  or  such  other  dark 
surface  as  the  Directors  shall  ap¬ 
prove,  will  be  put  on  both  sides  of 
the  partitions  in  the  class-rooms, 
live  feet  in  height,  (commencing 
two  feet  from  the  door,)  and  the 
whole  length  of  the  partitions ;  and 
also  of  the  same  height  in  each 
main  room,  between  the  two  front 
windows  on  the  first,  and  the  front 
windows  and  the  lobby  doors  on 
the  second  stories,  and  on  one  half 
of  the  partitions  between  the  main 
rooms,  on  both  stories  ;  the  whole 
to  be  neatly  finished  with  mouldings  and  bottom  ledges  for  chalk  or 
crayons. 

The  exterior  will  be  done  in  accordance  with  “  Architectural  Details,” 
plate  No.  8. 

The  lumber  all  to  be  well  seasoned,  and  of  the  best  quality  for  the  dif¬ 
ferent  kinds  of  work;  and  all  hardware  required  in  the  construction  and 
erection  of  the  above  work,  to  be  of  the  best  and  most  approved  manufac¬ 
ture. 

TIN  GUTTERS. 

The  valleys  and  gutters  will  be  properly  formed  with  the  best  cross  leaded 
roofing  tin,  and  four  inch  conductors  secured  to  the  walls,  and  continued  to 
the  ground ;  and  finished  with  shoes  and  spout  stones ;  the  gutters  and 
valleys  to  have  two  coats  of  red  lead. 

PLASTERING,  PAINTING,  &c. 

The  plastering  of  the  interior  will  be  the  same  as  No.  1.  The  painting 
and  glazing  also  the  same  as  in  No.  1,  and  likewise  the  privy  and 
fencing. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  building  to  be  completed  in  all  its  parts,  according  to  the  above  plans 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCIIOOL  HOUSES, 


101 


and  specfications,  or  the  references  to  No.  1,  as  aforesaid;  and  all  materials 
to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  to  be  neatly  and  substan¬ 
tially  done. 

ESTIMATE. 

This  building,  according  to  the  specification,  will  cost  six  thousand  dollars. 


CLASS  IV.  — No.  3. 

This  building  is  really  no  larger  than  the  last ;  though,  on  account  of 
its  difference  in  shape  and  arrangement,  it  will  accommodate  one  third 
more  Pupils. 

Eight  Teachers  —  one  principal  and  seven  assistants  —  for  the  wdiole 
School  will  be  required,  on  the  Union  plan.  If  the  sexes  are  kept  on  sepa¬ 
rate  floors,  a  principal  and  three  assistants  should  be  assigned  to  each  ;  or, 
if  the  Schools  are  to  be  independent  of  each  other,  a  principal  and  an  as¬ 
sistant  will  be  needed  for  each  of  the  four  rooms. 


As  this  building  has  only  one  small  class-room,  all  the  recitations  must 
necessarily  take  place  in  the  study  rooms.  Sufficient  space  seems  to  be 
left  for  this  purpose,  both  near  the  Teachers’  stands  and  at  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  apartments.  The  platform  is  well  placed  ;  and  if  the  window 


102 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


at  its  back  be  darkened  by  means  of  a  blind,  the  light  will  fall  pleasantly 


on  the  Pupil’s  eyes. 


The  closets  for  books 
on  both  floors  might  be 
transferred  to  the  op¬ 
posite  ends  of  the  room, 
by  which  a  larger 
space  for  black-boards 
could  be  secured. 

FIB.ST  STOEY. 

aa.  Entrances  &  clothes  room. 
b.  Class-room. 
cccc.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 
ff.  Flues  for  warm  air  and  gaa. 
gg.  Teachers’  desks. 
k.  Library  and  apparatus. 
pp.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 
as.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
w.  Ventiducts. 


SPECIFICATION. 


This  plan  will  not  require  many  specifications,  as  the  same  kind  of  ma¬ 
terials  and  workmanship  will  be  used  as  in  No.  2  ;  in  explanation  of  the 
interior,  reference  to  the  plans  will  be  had,  and  the  exterior  will  be  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  elevation  and  details,  in  which  they  are  all  fully  ex¬ 
plained. 

This  building  is  to  measure  thirty-six  by  fifty-five  feet,  with  a  projecting 

wing  on  the  front,  fifteen 
by  thirty-four  feet ;  two 
stories  high  —  first,  four¬ 
teen  feet  and  second  thir¬ 
teen  feet, each  in  the  clear 
of  floor  and  ceiling;  the 
pitch  of  the  roof  is  to 
be  seven  feet,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  first 
floor  two  feet. 


SECOND  STOUT. 


aa.  Clothes  rooms. 
bb.  Entrances  or  lobbies. 

The  other  letters  the  same  as 
’n  first  story. 


The  material  for  the  walls  will  be  stone ;  a  wall  will  be  put  under  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


103 


sash  partition  sixteen  inches  thick,  with  arched  openings  in  the  same ;  the 
cellar  wall  between  the  wing  and  main  building  will  also  be  sixteen  inches, 
and  above  that  will  be  of  brick  nine  inches  thick ;  the  joists  of  the  first 
and  second  story  will 
be  three  by  fourteen 
inches,  placed  sixteen 
inches  between  centres 
supported  on  the  outer 
and  centre  walls  in  the 
first  story ;  and  in  the 
second  by  a  girder  six 
by  twelve  inches,  bear¬ 
ing  upon  three  iron 
posts,  as  explained  by 
details  in  plate  No.  12, 

Architectural  Details. 

Three  principal  rafters 
will  support  the  roof,  of 
the  same  sized  timbers  and  framed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  No.  1 ;  the 
ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  eight  inches,  the  cupola  will  be  properly  framed 
and  finished  as  shown  in  plate  No  7,  “Architectural  Details.”  In  all 
other  particulars,  including  four  hundred  feet  of  black-board  surface,  the 
material  and  workmanship  will  be  similar  to  No.  2,  as  aforesaid ;  and  all  to 
be  completed  in  a  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  according  to  this  plan  would  be  six  thousand  five 
hundred  dollars. 


CLASS  IV. —  No.  4. 

This  is  the  plan  of  a  plain  and  capacious  edifice.  It  has  been  adopted 
in  the  erection  of  the  Lancaster,  Charlotta  and  Fitzwater  streets  Schools  in 
Philadelphia,  and  is  said  to  give  satisfaction.  Being  without  recitation 
rooms,  the  classes  in  it  must  necessarily  receive  instruction  in  the  presence 
of  the  rest  of  the  School.  Each  room  is  arranged  for  fifty-four  Pupils,  and 
there  being  eight  rooms,  the  number  of  Teachers  required  will  also  be  eight. 
Each  room  having  a  separate  entrance,  this  building  will  suit  for  eight 
separate  and  independent  Schools ;  or,  if  the  Union  plan  be  preferred,  it  is 


104 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


equally  well  .adapted  to  that,  the  glass  partitions  affording  to  the  principal 
Teacher  a  full  view  of  all  the  Schools  on  one  floor. 

The  chief  defects  in  this  plan  are  the  insufficiency  of  closet  accommoda¬ 
tions  and  of  surface  for  black-board.  Two  of  the  rooms  on  each  floor  are 


without  closets,  directly  opening  into  them.  This  can,  however,  be  remedied 
by  a  slight  change  in  the  plan.  The  other  two  rooms  on  each  floor  have 
their  walls  so  broken  by  doors  and  windows  as  to  leave  little  space  for  black¬ 
board  surface.  The  only  remedy  will  be  the  use  of  move  aide  black-boards  on 
frames,  though  these  are  always  less  desirable  than  those  permanently  fixed 


HU 

-L 

'  l 

--) 

t=¥ 

tzzzzs 

-  —  ■/, 

EEJ 

1=4 

to  the  wall,  whenever 
the  latter, can  be  ob¬ 
tained  . 

FIRST  STORY. 

aa.  Entrances  and  approaches  to 
tlie  stairs. 

bb.  Entrances  to  the  first  story 
and  clothes  room. 
ee.  Closets  for  brushes,  See. 
dd.  Closets  for  books  aDd  ap¬ 
paratus. 

ff.  Flues  for  warm  air  and  gas. 
gggg.  Teacher’s  desks,  on  plat¬ 
forms  4  by  10  feet. 
kkklc.  Sash  doors  for  Teachers. 
oooo.  Passages  2  feet  wide. 
p pp.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
rrr.  Seats  for  Pupils. 
rrrv.  Vurrfrfdnet*,  8  by  24  inek*». 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


105 


In  this  specification,  under  the  head  of  “  Deafening,”  a  precaution  is  de¬ 
scribed  which  should  be  omitted  in  no  School-house  with  more  stories  than 
one.  The  object  is  to  prevent  the  noise  made  by  the  changing  of  classes 
and  other  movements,  on  the  second  story,  from  being  heard  by  and  incom¬ 
moding  the  Schools  in  the  lower  part  of  the  building.  This  is  an  annoy¬ 
ance  always  complained  of,  when  not  guarded  against  in  the  first  construction 
of  the  house ;  and  the 


SPECIFICATION. 

The  first  of  these  ground  plans  represents  that  of  a  building  measuring 
forty-seven  by  fifty  feet;  with  projecting  wings  on  both  flanks  ten  by 
thirty-four  feet ;  two  stories  high,  first  fifteen  feet,  second  fourteen,  each  in 
the  clear  of  floor  and  ceiling.  As  the  plan  differs  considerably  from  all 
those  preceding  it,  a  full  specification  is  necessary,  that  it  may  be  under¬ 
stood  properly. 

EXCAVATIONS. 

The  cellar  will  be,  throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the  building,  seven 
feet  deep  in  the  clear  of  floor  and  lower  edge  of  joists ;  the  trenches  for  the 
foundations  will  be  eight  inches  deep  below  the  cellar  floor,  or  deeper,  if 
necessary  to  procure  an  approved  foundation.  The  cellar  door-way,  and 
foundations  to  the  steps  will  be  made  a  proper  depth.  If  the  condition 
of  the  ground  should  require  it,  the  earth  from  the  cellar  will  be  graded 
around  the  building,  and  all  the  surplus  earth  and  rubbish  removed  from 
the  premises. 

MASONRY. 

The  cellar  walls  will  be  of  quarry  building  stone  of  a  good  quality,  laid 
upon  their  broadest  beds ;  the  foundation  course  large  and  flat,  and  solidly 
bedded  in  mortar.  The  front  and  rear  walls  and  return  to  the  wings  will 
be  twenty  inches  thick,  and  those  of  the  wings  eighteen,  up  to  the  line  of 
the  pavement.  The  wall  separating  the  wings  from  the  main  building 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


106 


will  also  be  eighteen  inches,  up  to  the  level  of  the  under  edge  of  the  joists, 
and  the  walls  of  the  cellar  door- way  will  be  sixteen  inches;  the  foundation 
of  the  steps  and  piers  in  the  cellar  will  be  likewise  of  stone.  The  mortar 
will  be  composed  of  clean  sand  or  gravel,  and  wood  burnt  lime.  All  the  sur¬ 
faces  will  be  smooth¬ 
ly  dashed  with  mor¬ 
tar,  and  all  openings 
recpiired  by  the  plan 
will  be  made ;  and  in 
the  cellar  windows 
cast  iron  guards  will 
be  inserted. 


A.  Plan  of  cellar. 
aa.  Furnaces. 
b.  Cellar  stairs.' 
dd.  Cold  air  boxes  under  cel¬ 
lar  floor. 

e.  Piers  to  support  glass  par¬ 
titions. 


The  walls  above  the  levels  just  described,  will  be  of  well  burnt  brick. 
The  front,  including  the  wings  and  the  return  of  the  flanks  to  the  wings, 
will  be  of  the  best  pressed  brick,  and  the  remaining  surfaces  faced  with  the 
best  dark  stretchers.  From  the  level  of  the  pavement  to  the  first  floor, 
the  wall  will  be  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  from  that  level  to  the  roof,  in 
the  recesses  thirteen  inches,  and  the  pilasters  eighteen,  the  difference  pro¬ 
jecting  from  the  face  of  the  recesses.  The  base  will  be  finished  on  the  top 
with  moulded  brick,  between  the  pilasters ;  jfiers  will  be  built  in  the  cellar 
of  hard  brick,  for  the  support  of  the  iron  pillars,  twent}^-seven  inches  at  the 
base  and  tapering  upwards  to  eighteen  inches  at  the  top.  The  Avail  sepa¬ 
rating  the  wings  from  the  main  building  will  be  nine  inches,  of  brick.  All 
flues  for  warm  air,  gas,  or  ventilation  will  be  thoroughly  pargeted,  and  those 
for  gas  to  be  topped  out  a  sufficient  height  above  the  roof.  The  mortar  for 
all  brick  Avork  must  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime. 


CUT  STONE. 

Each  front  and  back  door  will  have  a  sill  four  feet  six  inches  long,  seven 
and  a  half  inches  rise  and  twelve  inches  tread,  and  a  platform  of  same  length 
and  rise  and  two  feet  six  inches  wide,  recessing  in  from  the  front,  the  doors 
being  hung  to  open  outAvards  over  the  same  ;  and  at  each  front  entrance 
will  be  two  steps  five  feet  long,  seven  and  a  half  inch  rise  and  tAvelve  inch 
tread.  A  set  of  cellar  door-cheeks  and  a  sill  will  be  required,  and  four 
spout  stones,  likeAvise  two  scrapers  to  be  provided  at  each  entrance.  The 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


107 


stone  to  be  smoothly  dressed,  and  solidly  and  securely  set.  A  date  stone 
of  white  marble  will  also  be  required,  with  such  lettering  as  may  be  directed 
by  the  committee.  See  plate  13,  “Architectural  Details.” 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  backed,  with  two 
courses  of  cross  bridging  well  nailed  through  each  tier ;  a  girder  will  be 
required  to  each  floor  ten  by  twelve  inches,  and  the  joists  notched  in  one 
inch,  and  eight  inches  downwards,  that  portion  crossing  the  top  meeting 
the  opposite  joists  in  the  centre.  All  joists  supporting  the  cross  partitions 
and  all  stair  and  flue  trimmers,  will  be  double  and  pinned  together ;  those 
of  the  partitions  will  be  trussed  with  an  oak  board  between  them ;  all  the 
trimmers  will  be  kept  three  inches  from  the  flues;  all  lintels  will  be  placed 
on  their  edges,  and  not  less  than  six  inches  deep. 

ROOF. 

The  roof  will  be  constructed  with  three  principal  rafters,  the  tie  beam 
five  by  twelve,  rafters  five  by  nine,  the  straining  piece  five  by  nine  and 
braces  four  by  five  inches ;  the  ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  eight  inches,  and 
secured  to  the  tie  beams  by  cleating  them,  notching  over  and  well  nailing 
the  joist  to  the  same  ;  the  ceiling  joists  will  extend  one  inch  below  and  the 
tie  beam  be  cross-cleated  to  secure  the  ceiling  from  cracking;  the  roof  joists 
will  be  three  by  six  inches,  twenty  inches  between  centres,  and  well  se¬ 
cured  across  the  principal  rafters.  The  cornice  will  be  supported  by  look¬ 
out  joists,  three  by  nine  inches,  two  feet  apart.  The  roof  of  the  wings  will 
have  three  by  five  inch  rafters,  to  bear  upon  a  wall  plate  and  ridge  piece  ; 
all  to  be  covered  with  boarding  well  nailed  to  the  rafters,  and  otherwise 
prepared  for  metal  roofing.  The  cornice  will  be  constructed  according  to 
the  elevations,  and  the  details  in  plate  No.  8,  “  Architectural  Details.” 
That  on  the  rear  will  correspond  with  the  front,  excepting  that  no  level 
cornice  will  be  required  across  the  pediment. 

WINDOWS. 

All  the  window  frames  will  be  made  plank  face,  the  sash  one  and  three 
quarter  inches  thick,  double  hung  with  the  best  patent  cord  and  axle  pul¬ 
leys.  The  second  story  will  have  inside  blinds,  one  and  a  quarter  inches 
thick,  in  two  folds  each,  and  hung  to  open  against  the  jamb,  without  boxes, 
secured  with  hooks,  and  cut  at  the  meeting  rail.  The  first  story  will  have 
panel  shutters,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  hung  with  straps  and  hooks 
and  secured  with  ten  inch  shutter  bolts. 

PARTITIONS,  &c. 

All  the  glass  partitions  will  be  constructed  with  one  and  a  half  inch 
sash  and  double  hung,  as  those  of  the  exterior ;  each  division  will  have 
thirty-two  lights  with  glass  about  eleven  by  seventeen  inches ;  boxes  will 


108 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


be  framed  around  the  iron  posts,  five  of  which  will  be  required  in  one 
longitudinal  partition  of  the  first  story,  with  iron  plate  on  the  top,  and  also 
on  the  brick  pier  under  the  girder.  The  boxes  in  the  second  story  will  all 
be  of  wood.  The  partitions  will  all  be  wainscoted  on  both  sides  with 
planed  and  grooved  boards,  and  joints  beaded ;  the  walls  throughout  the 
building  will  also  be  done  in  like  manner,  put  up  vertically  about  three 
feet  six  inches  high,  and  neatly  capped  on  the  top.  The  window  sills  will 
be  of  inch,  and  form  that  portion  of  the  capping.  Each  room  will  have  a 
sash  door,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  with  head  lights  over  them,  and 
hung  with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and  a  half  inch  butts  and  secured  with 
mortice  latches. 

The  gable  on  the  rear  will  require  a  circular  slat  window  for  ventilation. 
The  cellar  windows  will  have  inside  sash  made,  and  hung  to  casings,  fastened 
with  metal  buttons,  and  secured  when  open  with  hooks  and  staples. 

DOORS. 

The  entrance  doors  on  front  and  back  will  be  one  and  three  quarter 
inches  thick,  made  folding,  and  panelled,  with  mouldings  and  circular  head 
lights  over  the  doors,  hung  with  four  by  four  inch  butts,  three  on  each  door, 
and  secured  with  upright  rebated  mortice  locks  on  the  front,  and  good  park 
gate  latches  on  the  back ;  iron  plate  flush  bolts  will  be  required  on  both 
front  and  back,  at  the  centre  joints,  and  in  addition  ten  inch  flat  bolts  on 
the  back  across  the  joint.  The  doors  opening  from  the  hall  into  the  School¬ 
rooms,  and  into  the  clothes-rooms,  will  be  one  and  a  half  inches  thick, 
panelled,  hung  with  three  and  a  half  by  three  and  a  half  inch  butts,  and 
secured  with  four  inch  mortice  locks.  The  one  at  the  head  of  the  cellar 
stairs  will  be  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  hung  with  three  inch  butts,  and 
secured  with  latch  and  bolts.  All  closet  doors  will  be  made  and  hung  in 
like  manner  and  secured  with  good  closet  locks.  All  the  jamb  casings  for 
the  doors  will  be  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  rebated,  and  the  dressing  for 
the  same  will  be  a  four  inch  moulding  covering  the  joint  of  plastering.  The 
cellar  doors  will  be  made  in  pairs,  hung  with  hooks  and  straps,  and  fastened 
with  a  hasp  and  padlock,  and  a  strong  step-ladder  will  be  placed  in  the 
cellar  door-way. 

FLOORS. 

The  floors  will  be  of  heart  pine,  planed  and  grooved,  one  and  a  quarter 
inches  thick,  well  nailed  to  the  joist  and  the  joints  shot. 

‘  stairs,  & c. 

The  stairs  will  be  built  on  strong  bearers  of  three  inch  joists,  the  steps 
of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  oak  or  ash,  and  risers  of  inch,  to  be  enclosed 
within  a  partition  of  one  and  a  half  inch  plank,  planed  and  grooved  to¬ 
gether,  and  to  extend  six  feet  above  the  landing  on  the  second  floor,  neatly 
capped. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


109 


A  step  ladder  will  be  required  to  approach  the  loft ;  the  trap  door  on  the 
roof  will  be  hung  with  strap  hinges,  and  secured  with  hooks  and  stapels; 
a  cover  will  also  be  hung  to  the  opening  in  the  ceiling.  All  necessary  map 
and  pin  rails  to  be  put  up  in  the  main  rooms,  closets,  and  halls,  and  forty 
dozen  wrought  iron  clothes  hooks  will  be  properly  put  up  where  directed  by 
the  committee,  and  all  necessary  black-boards  with  mouldings  for  the  frames. 
A  rail  of  cherry  plank  will  be  put  up  on  each  side  of  the  stairs,  firmly 
secured  with  iron  stays. 

VENTIDUCTS. 

Ventiducts  will  be  constructed  with  brick  flues,  eight  by  twenty-four 
inches,  smoothly  plastered  on  the  inside  and  faced  with  planed  and  grooved 
boards,  one  to  each  room,  with  openings  at  the  floor  and  ceiling;  the  upper 
one  to  turn  on  a  pivot,  and  the  lower  one  to  be  hinged,  and  secured  with  a 
metal  button.  From  the  ceiling  joists  to  the  apex  of  the  roof,  the  shaft 
will  be  of  wood,  and  of  capacity  equal  to  all  the  vertical  ducts,  made 
air  tight  and  smooth  on  the  inside;  the  main  shaft  will  extend  eight  inches 
above  the  roof,  neatly  capped,  and  surmounted  with  an  ejecting  ventilator. 

All  the  lumber  to  be  well  seasoned  and  of  the  best  quality  for  the  different 
kinds  of  work ;  and  all  hardware  necessary  to  complete  the  same  to  be  of 
the  best  and  most  approved  manufacture,  including  all  cast  and  wrought 
iron  work,  stubs,  screws,  anchors  for  the  joists,  scrapers  for  the  entrance 
doors,  &c. 

PLASTERING. 

All  the  walls  and  ceiling  will  have  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  one 
of  hard  white  finish ;  the  jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  flared,  and  the 
angles  rounded ;  the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand  and  wood 
burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered  hair;  and  the  lath  to  be  sound 
and  free  from  bark. 

DEAFENING. 

The  floors  of  the  second  story  will  be  deafened,  by  cleating  the  joists  and 
flooring  crosswise  between  them,  to  receive  two  inches  of  gravel  mortar,  to 
be  flush  with  the  top  of  the  joists. 

TIN  WORK. 

The  building  will  be  covered  with  cross  leaded  roofing  tin  of  the  best 
quality,  put  on  standing  grooves  and  to  be  well  cleated  to  the  boards;  the 
tin  to  be  painted  on  both  sides,  the  upper  with  two  coats,  the  first  to  be  red 
lead ;  the  gutters  to  be  properly  tinned,  and  four  three  inch  conductors  pro¬ 
vided,  and  well  secured  to  the  wall  and  finished  at  the  bottom  with  an  iron 
section  and  shoe  The  level  cornice  of  the  pediment  'will  also  be  covered 
with  tin,  the  same  as  the  roofing. 


110 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  is  to  have  three  coats  of  pure  white 
lead  and  best  linseed  oil,  and  to  be  finished  in  such  tints  of  plain  colors  as 
directed  ;  the  wainscoting  will  be  grained  plain  oak,  and  varnished,  as  well 
as  the  wall  rails ;  the  Venetian  blinds  will  be  finished  in  the  best  style  of 
green.  The  sash  will  all  be  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well 
bedded,  bradded  and  back  puttied  ;  the  size  in  the  outer  windows  will  be 
twelve  by  eighteen  inches,  eighteen  lights  in  each  frame,  and  in  the  glass 
partition  eleven  by  seventeen  inches ;  the  sash  in  the  cellar  will  be  glazed 
with  glass  of  the  second  quality. 

PRIVIES. 

A  well  will  be  dug  eight  feet  in  diameter  and  twenty  feet  deep,  and 
walled  up  dry,  with  four  inches  of  hard  brick,  to  be  squared  up  properly, 
and  a  brick  building  erected  eight  by  twelve  feet,  divided  into  two  apart¬ 
ments  ;  the  walls  will  be  four  inches,  of  good  hard  stretchers,  the  story  to 
be  seven  feet  six  inches  in  the  clear  when  finished;  the  covering  to  be 
shingles;  the  doors  to  be  battoned,  and  hung  with  straps  and  hooks  to 
scantling  frames,  and  secured  with  latches  and  hooks ;  to  be  floored  and 
fitted  up  with  seats  and  risers ;  and  in  each  apartment  will  be  a  window 
frame  with  slats ;  the  building  to  be  plastered  and  painted  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  main  building.  A  closely  boarded  screen  will  be  placed  in 
each  yard  eight  feet  long  the  height  of  the  fence ;  and  on  the  boys’  side  a 
cast  iron  urinal  will  be  placed,  to  connect  with  the  well.  A  ventilating 
flue  nine  by  eighteen  inches  of  wood,  will  be  made  in  the  centre,  to  extend 
from  the  bottom  of  the  seats  about  six  feet  above  the  roof,  and  neatly  cap¬ 
ped  on  the  top. 

Fencing  will  be  put  up,  separating  the  boys’  and  girls’  play-ground,  and 
otherwise  as  directed  by  the  committee,  to  be  six  feet  six  inches  high, 
planed  and  grooved,  with  posts  of  locust  or  red  cedar,  and  to  be  three  feet 
in  the  ground,  and  not  more  than  eight  feet  between  centres.  A  gate  will 
be  required  for  each  yard,  to  be  battoned  and  hung  with  strong  straps  and 
hooks,  and  secured  with  strong  latch  and  bolts,  hasp  and  staple. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  of  the  various  parts  are  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the 
workmanship  to  be  done  in  a  neat  and  substantial  manner. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  after  this  plan  would  be  eight  thousand  dollars. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES 


111 


CLASS  IV.  —  No.  5. 

Many  valuable  suggestions  will  result  from  a  close  examination  of  this 
plan.  It  contains  all  the  essential  features  of  a  complete  School-house  for 
a  Union  graded  School  with  about  four  hundred  Pupils ;  but  for  that  pur¬ 
pose  it  will  require  some  change  in  the  details  of  the  interior  arrangement. 
These  will  now  be  freely  stated  ;  the  object  of  this  Manual,  being,  as  much 
to  offer  a  large  collection  of  parts  out  of  which  intelligent  Directors  and 
Builders  may  select  and  construct  a  suitable  and  harmonious  whole,  adapted 
to  their  local  circumstances,  as  to  present  a  set  of  plans,  each  perfect  in 
itself. 

With  the  changes  hereafter  suggested,  this  house  will  be  found  to  be 
very  suitable  for  a  small  town  with  from  three  hundred  and  fifty  to  four 
hundred  Pupils  of  all  grades;  or  for  the  ward  or  other  division,  containing 
the  same  number,  in  a  larger  town  or  a  small  city,  in  which  the  plan  of 
having  the  schools  of  each  part  separate  from  the  others,  but  still  on  the 
Union  graded  system,  is  preferred. 


The  general  idea  of  the  plan  is  admirable.  It  provides  not  only  for  the 
three  regular  grades  of  Schools  in  the  same  building,  all  so  arranged  as  to 
be  within  the  full  control  of  the  principal  Teacher,  but  it  affords  considera¬ 
ble  class  room,  great  facility  of  entrance  and  egress,  and  a  fine  large  lecture 
hall.  These  are  all  very  desirable  qualities.  In  the  details,  however,  it 
slightly  fails ;  but  it  can  be  readily  improved  both  in  capacity  and  arrange¬ 
ment,  with  little  trouble  and  no  increase  of  cost. 


112 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  objections  to  the  plan  of  both  stories,  as  prepared  by  the  artist,  are, 
1,  that  they  do  not  provide  seats  for  a  sufficient  number  of  Pupils,  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  size  and  cost  of  the  building;  and  2,  that  the  seats  are  not 
assigned  in  proper  proportion  to  the  different  grades. 


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FIRST  STORY. 

A.  Girls’  intermediate  or  High 
School-room. 

C.  Boys’  intermediate  or  High 
School-room. 

B.  Boys’  Primary. 

D.  Girls’  Primary. 
aa.  Outside  porches  for  boys  and 

girls. 

bb.  Clothes  rooms  for  boys  and  girls. 

c.  Teacher’s  or  recitation  room. 

d.  Entrance  to  Primary  School  and 
clothes  room,  with  stair  to  boys’ 
ripper  room. 

e.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

/.  Flues  for  warm  air  or  gas. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk. 

h.  Passages  two  feet  wide. 
v.  Ventiducts. 

There  is  no  actual  necessity  for  the  third  or  back  stairway.  The  space 
occupied  by  it,  if  thrown  into  the  girls’  Primary  School,  will  make  it  of 
equal  capacity  with  that  of  the  boys’.  Each  of  these  rooms  will  then  he 
about  twenty-five  feet  by  thirty-five.  This  will  readily  seat  two  hundred 
Primary  Pupils  — one  hundred  in  each  room.  The  High  School-rooms  are 
about  twenty-five  feet  square ;  a  space  which  will  seat  from  thirty-five  to 
forty  Pupils  of  that  grade  in  each  room. 


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SECOND  STORY. 

E.  Girls’  Secondary  School. 

F.  Boys’  Secondary  School. 

G.  Lecture  room. 

a.  Lobby  and  entrance  to  lecture  room 

b.  Clothes  room  for  boys. 
c  d.  Class-rooms. 

ee.  Passages. 

f.  Flues. 

g.  Teachers’  desks. 

h.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 

1.  Closets  for  books,  <kc. 
mm.  Water  closets. 

mi.  Wash-basins. 
vv.  Ventilating  flues. 

w.  Girls’  clothes  room. 

x.  Closet  for  library  and  apparatus. 


To  secure  readiness  of  entrance  to  the  Primary  Schools,  there  should  be 
an  outside  door  to  each,  opening  through  a  small  entry  or  clothes  room. 
These  doors  had  better  both  open  directly  into  the  yard  at  the  back  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


113 


building,  and  neither  of  them  into  the  street ;  but  a  gate  should  lead  from 
them  to  the  street. 

The  second  story  also  admits  of  some  desirable  changes.  The  two  Sec¬ 
ondary  Schools  may  be  placed  across  the  back  part  of  the  building  over 
the  primaries,  each  being  of  sufficient  size  to  seat  about  sixty  Pupils ;  the 
partition  between  them  should  be  also  of  glass,  to  correspond  with  the 
first  story. 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  second  story,  next  the  stairs,  will  then  be¬ 
come  applicable  to  the  lecture  hall  and  class-rooms ;  two  class-rooms  of 
about  twelve  by  fifteen  feet  each,  being  taken  off  one  end  of  this  space. 

The  lecture  hall  will  be  about  thirty  by  forty  feet,  and,  as  it  will  never 
be  occupied  when  the  Schools  are  in  session,  the  doors  to  the  secondary  and 
class-rooms  may  open  into  it.  By  this  arrangement,  also,  the  class-rooms 
will  be  readily  accessible  both  to  the  High  and  Secondary  Schools,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  which  they  will  be  chiefly  used. 

Thus  the  same  space  will  be  made  to  accommodate  a  larger  number  of 
Pupils  and  in  better  proportion  to  the  numbers  and  wants  of  each  grade, 
than  as  set  forth  in  the  plans  above  given.  The  cost  of  the  third  stairway 
will  also  be  saved,  and  will  defray  the  expense  of  the  alterations  just  speci¬ 
fied. 

If,  however,  the  plans  as  given  are  preferred,  the  following  are  the  spe¬ 
cifications  prepared  to  accompany  them,  without  embracing  any  of  the 
changes  above  recommended. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  building  is  larger  and  in  a  style  differing  considerably  from  No.  4, 
but  the  workmanship  of  the  interior  will  be  similar  to  it,  and  the  exte¬ 
rior  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  elevation  and  details.  A  general  de¬ 
scription  only  will  be  given,  and  for  the  particulars,  reference  will  be  made  to 
No.  4,  as  aforesaid.  The  building  will  be  fifty-five  by  seventy-six  feet,  with 
two  towers  projecting  slightly  from  the  line  of  the  building.  The  first  and 
second  stories  will  be  each  fifteen  feet  in  the  clear ;  pitch  of  roof  nine  feet ; 
and  elevation  of  first  floor  two  feet  six  inches.  The  walls  will  be  of  stone, 
stuccoed  on  the  exterior,  and  laid  off  in  blocks  in  imitation  of  cut  stone. 
The  eave  and  cornice  and  cupola,  from  the  level  of  the  eave,  will  be  of 
wood,  and  painted  and  sanded  in  imitation  of  cut  stone.  The  covering  of 
the  roof  will  be  of  tin,  as  also  the  base  of  the  cupola  and  roof  of  the  same, 
and  of  the  porches.  The  exterior  walls  in  the  cellar  will  be  twenty-four 
inches,  the  first  story  twenty-two,  and  the  remainder  twenty  inches  thick ; 
the  walls  forming  the  front  stairways  will  be  of  brick,  thirteen  inches  first 
story,  nine  inches  second.  Piers  will  be  built  in  the  cellar,  as  directed  in 
No.  4,  for  the  support  of  the  glass  partition,  which  runs  longitudinally 
through  the  building,  and  for  the  support  of  the  floors  of  joists.  The  floor- 
15 


114 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


ing  joists  of  the  first  and  second  stories  will  be  three  by  fourteen  inches; 
and  in  addition  to  the  manner  described  in  the  preceding  plan,  a  camber- 
rod  will  be  run  through  them.  The  roof  will  be  constructed  as  in  the  plan 
aforesaid.  The  window  frames  the  same,  excepting  that  all  the  shutters 
will  be  hung  inside. 

This  building  will  re¬ 
quire  three  bights  of  stairs, 
each  enclosed  as  in  the  plan 
referred  to,  with  Avail  rails, 
&c.  The  glass  partition  in 
the  first  story  will  also  re¬ 
quire  iron  posts.  The  par¬ 
tition  separating  the  girls’ 
and  boys’  superior  School¬ 
room  in  the  second  story 
will  also  be  of  sash,  Avith- 
out  the  iron  posts.  The 
partitions  forming  the  lec¬ 
ture  rooms  and  all  others 
will  be  of  three  by  six  inch 
scantling.  A  Avater  closet  and  wash-basin  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
girls  of  the  superior  School,  and  also  one  of  each  for  the  Teachers,  Avill  be 
constructed  Avhere  shown  in  the  plan,  and  connected  with  sufficient  and 
properly  constructed  sinks  or  wells.  In  all  other  particulars  reference  Avill 
be  had  to  the  preceding  plan. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  after  this  plan  will  be  tAvelve  thousand  dollars. 


CLASS  IV.  — No.  6. 

The  drawing  and  plans  noAV  presented  are  those  of  a  brick  edifice,  at 
present  in  the  course  of  erection  in  Williamsport,  Lycoming  County.  It  is 
the  first  three  story  building  included  in  this  class,  and  seems  to  have  been 
designed  with  great  care,  and  attention  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  its 
future  inmates.  The  whole  number  of  Pupils  intended  to  be  accommo¬ 
dated  is  eight  hundred  and  ninety-two ;  of  whom  those  on  the  second  and 
third  stories  —  five  hundred  and  twelve  —  are  to  be  of  the  more  advanced 
classes,  and  only  those  on  the  first  —  two  hundred  and  eighty  —  to  be  of 
the  lower  grades.  The  design,  probably,  is  that  the  chief  portion  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


115 


primary  Pupils  of  the  town  shall  be  accommodated  in  separate  buildings 
in  their  respective  localities.  The  lot  on  which  this  noble  School-house 


is  to  stand,  is  two  hundred  and  eight  feet  square.  The  architect  who  de¬ 
signed  it  is  William  Fink,  of  Williamsport. 

The  front  and  side  entrances  to  the  first  story  afford  greater  facilities  for 
this  purpose,  than  are  usually 
met  with.  The  number  of  ward¬ 
robes  is  perhaps  too  great,  and 
the  provision  of  closets  for  books 
and  apparatus,  too  small;  but 
two  of  the  wardrobes  can  easi¬ 
ly  be  used  for  apparatus,  &c. 

The  means  for  heating  and  ven¬ 
tilating  seem  to  be  proper  and 
ample,  and  the  partitions  divi¬ 
ding  the  rooms  longitudinally, 
offer  large  space  for  black-board 
surface. 

riaST  STORY. 

C.  Halls  or  lobbies. 

D.  AVardrobes. 

H.  Recitation  room,  16  by  18  feet. 
m.  Registers  for  hot  air. 

V.  Ventiducts. 

The  second  and  third  stories,  which  are  divided  and  arranged  alike,  and 


116 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE . 


seem  to  be  intended  for  the  same  classes  of  Pupils,  are  well  adapted  for  in¬ 
struction  in  the  higher  branches.  With  two  good  sized  recitation  rooms,  a 

library  room,  and  two  extra  ward- 
i  robes-  (opening  into  the  recitation 
I.  rooms  and  suitable  for  apparatus,)  all 


r'j 

|L 


r  -)  <i'.  „  « 

m  m\ 


■  /,■  §  ~ 15 
P  p 

; '  A  '  1 

k;  1  id 

1  If  f" 

| 


vru 


3  er:2B®sB2ssc^4'  011  the  same  floor,  every  thing  seems 
fCS'S  hdiiOlihj,  to  be  at  hand  for  convenience  and 
f  f  ff’if  ifC'CS  |  efficiency.  The  position  of  the  Pupils, 
j  [iOC^'OSOS  i  also,  with  their  backs  to  the  light, 

.J  and  a  large  space  for  black-board  in 


fyj  '•>  !>•■!. I'H  ■  :  .  ! 


HJ;.  t-i,  Ij-L-iX; 


i  hi 


p;-[ :;f  chip v  front,  is  the  best  that  could  be  chosen. 

'  !  j 

1 %y — 1  id  SECOND  AND  THIRD  FLOORS. 

ii  r.rvp:ri  •n,-i  •  fi*fh  k 

0  twSAjeuHAL.  •LMjo  i  n  Ttr  j  1 

i  1).  Wardrobes. 

s';.-!  r,'.n-n,-n-ric°r..r’J 

jffij  LkiAij -i>la;LpUo ji  Jl.  Senior  School-rooms,  28  by  43  feet. 

t-A  1'’.  Recitation  room,  16  by  22  feet. 

|  G.  Library  room  16  by  18  feet. 

e  b  I/  i  c  }  m.  Register  for  hot  air. 

5;:  f-n -  :  s.  Flues  for  smoke  or  gas. 


T :  M  j 

r  “ 


'TtsZat 

i  ■  - 

„  1=; 


1  Ali 


.  _  _ : 


F.  Ventiducts. 


SPECIFICATION. 

The  dimensions  are  sixty  by  eighty  feet,  three  stories  high,  each  twelve 
feet  in  the  clear,  and  the  elevation  of  the  first  floor  three  feet.  For  the 
arrangement  of  the  interior  reference  will  be  had  to  the  plans  where  they 
are  fully  explained. 


EXCAVATIONS. 

The  cellar  will  be  under  the  whole  building,  and  eight  feet  deep  in  the 
clear  of  floor  and  lower  edge  of  joists.  The  trenches  for  the  outer  walls 
will  be  twelve  inches  deeper  than  the  cellar  level,  and  those  of  the  partition 
walls  six  inches  ;  the  foundation  for  the  cheek-blocks  and  outside  steps  will 
he  sunk  two  feet  six  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  a  cellar 
door-way  will  be  dug,  and  two  coal  shoots,  as  indicated  by  the  plan. 

A  privy  well  will  be  dug  twenty  feet  deep  and  eight  feet  in  diameter 
and  walled  up  with  hard  brick,  dry.  All  earth  not  required  in  grading  the 
lot,  and  all  the  rubbish  collected  in  and  around  the  building,  during  the 
progress  of  erection,  to  be  removed  from  the  premises,  and  the  same  made 
fit  for  occupancy. 

MASONRY. 

The  cellar  walls  are  to  be  of  good  building  stone  and  the  foundation 
course  large  and  flat,  and  solidly  imbedded  in  mortar ;  the  outer  walls  up 
to  the  level  of  the  ground  will  be  twenty-two  inches  thick,  and  all  the  di¬ 
vision  walls  as  indicated  by  the  plans,  will  be  built  up  to  receive  the  joists, 
sixteen  inches  thick )  those  of  the  cellar  door  openings  the  same  thickness. 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


117 


The  foundation  course  will  project  four  inches  from  each  face  and  be  laid 
cross- wise ;  the  whole  face  to  be  flushed  with  mortar,  composed  of  sharp 
coarse  sand  or  gravel,  and  wood  burnt  lime.  All  openings  throughout  the 
cellar  will  be  arched  at  the  head  with  hard  brick ;  the  inside  of  the  walls 
to  be  well  dashed  with  mortar. 


BRICK  WORK. 


All  the  walls,  from  the  level  of  the  masonry  just  described,  will  be  built 
of  well  burnt  brick,  and  the  exterior  faced  with  good  pressed  brick ;  up  to 
the  level  of  the  first  floor  the  outside  wall  will  be  twenty-two  inches,  and 
will  form  a  base,  capped  with  a  moulded  brick ;  from  that  level  up  to  the 
second  floor  twenty  inches  ;  in  the  recesses  of  the  two  upper  stories  sixteen 
inches,  and  at  the  pilasters  eighteen  inches.  The  belt  courses,  as  indicated 
by  the  elevation,  will  project  from  the  wall  of  the  first  story  two  inches  and 
pilasters  two  inches,  which  will  make  a  projection  from  the  face  of  the  re¬ 
cesses  of  four  inches.  The  walls 


in  the  recesses  and  first  story,  will 
be  built  with  a  hollow  space  of  two 
inches  between  the  inside  four 
inches,  and  the  remaining  outside 
thickness  ;  the  two  surfaces  to  be 
well  bonded  together,  with  alter¬ 
nate  headers  every  fifth  course. 
A  brick  cornice  will  be  put  around 
the  building)  and  in  its  construc¬ 
tion  two  courses  of  moulded  brick 
will  be  required. 


- 

n 

: 

1 

■ 

1  1 

/ 

y 

BASEMENT. 

m.  Register. 

nn.  Coal  slides. 

s.  Flues  for  smoke  or  gas. 


All  flues  for  gas,  hot  air,  or  ventilation  will  be  built  where  they  are 
marked  on  the  plans,  carefully  pargeted,  and  all  carried  up  separately  and 
the  full  size  at  starting ;  those  for  hot  air  and  gas  to  be  commenced  in  the 
cellar ;  and  all  requisite  preparation  to  be  made  for  the  building  of  two 
large  sized  heaters  in  the  cellar.  The  longitudinal  division  wall  of  the  first 
story  will  be  thirteen  inches  thick,  and  all  the  other  nine  inches.  The 
pilasters  of  the  entrance  doors  will  be  brick  and  project  two  and  a  quarter 
inches,  and  the  frieze  and  cornice  of  the  same  will  be  of  cut  stone*.  The 
cellar  window  openings  will  be  slightly  arched  at  the  heads  and  will  have 


118 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


cast  iron  guards  inserted  in  all,  excepting  one,  which  will  have  a  wrought 
iron  gate  secured  with  bolt  and  lock. 

The  mortar  for  the  above  work  is  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand 
and  wood  burnt  lime. 

CUT  STONE. 

The  sills  of  all  the  entrance  doors  and  the  frieze  and  cornice  of  the  same, 
the  cheek-blocks  and  steps  and  the  cellar  window  sills  and  cheeks,  and  sills 
of  the  shoot  cellar  door,  will  be  of  cut  stone,  neatly  tooled  and  secured,  and 
solidly  set. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  of  the  first  story  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  and 
the  second  and  third,  three  by  fifteen  inches  all  placed  sixteen  inches  be¬ 
tween  centres,  backed  and  well  blocked  upon  the  walls,  and  two  lines  of 
lattice  bridging  well  secured  through  the  centre  of  each  tier.  All  framing 
will  require  double  trimmers,  pinned  together,  and  at  the  breast  of  the 
flues  to  be  framed  at  least  two  inches  clear  of  the  brick  work.  The  prin¬ 
cipals  will  be  place:!  over  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  piers  from  the  front; 
the  beams  four  by  twelve  inches,  rafters  four  by  nine,  braces  four  by  four, 
with  one  and  a  quarter  inch  iron  rod  in  the  centre,  with  double  nuts  and 
securely  bolted  on  the  heels.  The  diagonal  rafters  will  be  three  by  twelve, 
on  the  rear  they  will  require  trussing.  Those  on  the  front  will  bear  on  the 
walls  of  the  stair-way  ;  the  purlins,  four  by  ten,  will  be  laid  across  the  walls 
and  rafters,  and  common  rafters  secured  two  feet  between  centres,  heeled 
against  raising  pieces  secured  on  the  ceiling  joists.  The  ceiling  joists  will 
be  two  by  twelve  inches,  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  to  be  laid  cross¬ 
wise  the  building  over  the  School-rooms  ;  and  front  and  back  of  the  outside 
principal  rafter  to  be  laid  length-wise ;  all  to  bear  on  three  by  nine  inch 
wall  plates  ;  to  have  one  line  of  lattice  bridging  through  the  centre  of  each 
two.  All  the  wardrobe  partitions  and  those  forming  the  rear  boundary  of 
the  large  School-rooms  on  the  second  and  third  story,  will  be  three  by  four 
inch  scantling,  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  well  secured  between  floor 
and  ceiling ;  those  forming  door  jambs  will  be  four  by  four  inches.  All 
the  lintels  to  be  placed  on  their  edges,  to  suit  the  thickness  of  the  walls. 

A  cupola  will  be  constructed  according  to  the  elevation,  well  secured  on 
the  roof  and  prepared  to  ventilate  the  building.  The  rafters  will  be  closely 
boarded,  the  gutters  formed  on  the  eaves,  and  otherwise  prepared  for  cover¬ 
ing  with  metal.  A  trap-door  'will  be  made  in  the  roof,  and  a  ladder  to  ap¬ 
proach  the  same.  Ventiducts  will  be  made  where  marked  on  the  plans ; 
those  in  the  brick  walls  will  have  fronts  of  sound  one  and  a  quarter  inch 
boards?  smooth  on  the  inside  and  all  air-tight.  These  ducts  will  be  con¬ 
tinued  over  the  loft,  the  full  capacity  of  those  discharging  into  them,  and 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


119 


connected  with  the  cupola.  Openings  top  and  bottom  will  be  made  on  the 
vertical  ducts,  with  shutters  for  the  same. 

WINDOWS. 

All  the  windows  will  be  made  plank  face  or  casing,  with  heart  pine  sills. 
The  sash  will  be  made  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick,  double  hung, 
with  axle  pulleys,  cord  and  weights.  The  cellar  windows  will  have  sash 
made  and  hung  to  a  casing,  and  fastened  to  a  bolt  and  secured,  when  open, 
with  a  hook  to  the  joists.  The  entrance  door  frames  will  be  of  two  inch 
plank,  beaded  on  the  front  edge  with  plain  hanging  on  the  back,  and  a 
head  light  over  each.  Shutters  will  be  made  in  three  panels  for  all  the 
first  story  windows,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  bead  and  butt  on  one  face 
and  flat  panel  and  moulded  on  the  other ;  and  rolling  blinds  same  thickness 
for  the  second  and  third  stories ;  all  hung  with  strong  hooks  and  straps ; 
the  shutters  secured  with  twelve  inch  bolts,  and  the  blinds  with  eight  inch, 
and  all  provided  with  turn  bolts.  The  size  of  the  glass  will  be  thirteen  by 
twenty-two  inches,  twelve  lights  to  a  frame. 

FLOORS,  &c. 

All  the  floors  will  be  laid  with  one  and  a  quarter  inch  heart  pine  boards, 
planed  and  grooved,  well  nailed  to  the  joists  and  joints  shot.  Upright 
wainscoting  will  be  put  around  all  the  rooms,  planed  and  grooved,  and 
joints  beaded,  and  capped  on  the  top,  on  a  line  with  the  window  sills.  The 
wardrobes  will  all  have  pin  rails  put  up  and  a  sufficient  number  of  the  best 
quality  wardrobe  hooks  secured  to  the  same  ;  map  rails  will  also  be  inserted 
in  the  main  rooms  where  ordered. 

JAMB  CASINGS,  &c. 

All  the  jamb  casings  of  the  doors  will  be  one  and  three  quarter  inches 
thick,  rebated  on  each  edge ;  and  all  dressing  to  be  four  inches,  one  and  a 
half  inches  thick,  neatly  moulded.  Wash-boards  are  to  be  eight  inches 
wide,  including  one  and  a  half  inch  moulding  on  the  top. 

STAIRS. 

The  stairs  will  be  built  according  to  the  plan.  Steps  of  one  and  a  half 
inch  oak  or  ash  plank,  risers  one  inch  of  the  same  material,  to  be  enclosed 
with  a  partition  of  one  and  a  half  inch  plank,  planed  and  grooved,  and  on 
the  wall  side  will  be  a  rail  of  ash,  moulded  and  secured  to  the  wall,  with 
iron  stays.  The  stairs  will  be  continued  to  the  cellar  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  a  rough  flight  also  in  the  cellar  door,  which  opening  outside,  will  have 
strong  batton  doors  made  and  hung,  and  secured  with  bar  on  the  inside. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  doors  will  be  in  pairs,  each  four  panels,  one  and  three  quar¬ 
ter  inches  thick,  moulded  on  the  outside,  hung  with  four  by  four  inch  butts, 
three  on  each  door,  and  secured  with  iron  plate  flush  bolts,  and  six  inch 


120 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


rebated  mortice  locks.  All  the  inside  doors  will  be  one  and  three  quarter 
inches  thick,  four  panels,  flat  panel  and  moulded  on  both  sides,  hung  with 
four  by  four  inch  butts,  and  secured  with  three  and  a  half  inch  mortice 
locks.  Over  each  School-room  door  will  be  a  head  light,  made  and  hung 
with  pivots. 

PLATFORMS,  &c. 

Platforms  will  be  made  according  to  the  plan ;  and  one  hundred  feet  of 
black-board  or  other  dark  surface,  to  be  approved  by  the  Directors,  put  up 
in  each  School  and  recitation  room. 

PRIVY,  &c. 

The  privy  and  fences  will  be  the  same  as  in  No.  4,  of  this  series. 

LUMBER,  &c. 

The  lumber  all  to  be  of  the  best  quality  for  the  different  kinds  of  work, 
and  all  thoroughly  seasoned ;  and  all  hardware  required  in  the  construction 
and  completion  of  the  work,  to  be  provided,  including  all  smith-work,  viz  * 
iron  rods  and  bolts  for  the  roof,  anchors  for  the  joists,  stubs,  screws, 
stays,  &c. 

PLASTERING. 

The  walls,  ceilings  and  partitions  will  be  plastered  with  two  coats  of 
brown  mortar,  and  one  of  white  finish ;  the  mortar  to  be  made  of  clean 
sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered  hair. 
The  laths  to  be  sound  ;  the  halls  and  stairways  will  be  finished  with  rough¬ 
casting,  and  laid  off  in  blocks  in  imitation  of  cut  stone,  and  tinted  as  di¬ 
rected.  The  jambs  of  all  the  windows  will  be  plastered. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  will  have  three  coats  of  pure  white 
lead  and  best  linseed  oil.  The  outside  doors  will  be  grained  in  imitation 
of  oak  and  varnished,  as  also  the  hand-railing  of  the  stairs.  The  interior 
will  be  finished  in  such  tints  of  plain  colors  as  may  be  directed.  The  sash 
all  to  be  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded,  bradded  and 
back  puttied. 

MEMORANDUM. 

The  materials  and  workmanship  of  the  different  parts  are  to  be  of  the 
best  kind,  done  in  the  most  substantial  manner,  and  under  the  supervision 
of  the  building  committee  of  the  board  of  Directors  or  their  agents. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  Williamsport  building,  after  this  plan  and  specification,  is  to  cost 
seven  thousand  dollars. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


121 


CLASS  IV.  —  No  .  7. 


The  views  and  plans  now  presented  are  those  of  the  beautiful  and  capa¬ 
cious  Common  School-house,  recently  completed  and  opened  in  the  borough 
of  Washington,  the  county  town  of  Washington  county.  The  general  plan 


and  arrangement  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  First  and  Third  ward  Schools 
in  the  city  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  placed  on  a  lot  two  hundred  and  forty  feet 
square.  The  architect  was  John  Chislett,  of  Pittsburg,  and  the  details  were 
directed  by  A.  M.  Gow,  the  present  Principal  of  the  School. 


1  aaaam 

|  □□□□□□□ 

u 

1  aaaQQiiLup- 

^□□□aaoa 

M  aaaiaaa0i^ 

uuumuu 

.p|L 

f  □□□□□□□  W 

□□□□□Da 

-Jj 

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1  maim 

Hi 

c  | 

FIRST  STORY. 

a.  Main  entrance. 

b.  Back  entrance. 

c.  Closets  for  books,  &c. 

d.  Front  portico. 

e.  Clothes  room,  &e. 

/.  Flues  for  gas. 

g.  Teacher’s  desk. 

h.  Register  for  warm  air. 

k.  Passages  between  seats. 

l.  Doors  into  the  clothes  rooms. 
s.  Seats  for  two  Pupils  each. 
c.  Ventiducts. 

w.  Windows  into  clothes  rooms. 

As  this  building  embraces  all 

the  improvements  suggested  by 

the  researches  and  experience  of 

an  accomplished  Teacher,  it  is  probably  as  perfect  as  any  in  the  State,  to 

10 


□□□□□□□ 

Qoaaaaa 

rnrnmu 

aaaoDaa 

□□□□□□□ 


□□□□□□a 

aaaaaaa 

mmm 

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□□□□□□□ 


122 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


suit  the  system  of  instruction  for  which  it  is  designed.  No  class-rooms 
being  included  in  the  plan,  of  course  no  recitations  in  separate  apartments 
are  contemplated.  The  number  of  Teachers  for  such  a  School,  on  the  regu¬ 
lar  Union  system,  will  not  be  less  than  eleven ;  that  is  one  for  each  room, 
and  a  principal  or  superintendent  over  the  whole. 

The  wide  front  and  back  entry  doors,  broad  double  stairwaj’s,  convenient 
clothes  rooms,  numerous  closets,  and  careful  preparation  for  heating  and 
ventilation,  are  all  admirable.  The  fronting  of  the  Pupils  towards  the 

side  windows  is  a  very  slight 
defect  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  furniture,  which  can  be  easi¬ 
ly  overcome  by  placing  the 
Teacher’s  desk  at  the  opposite 
side  of  each  room,  or  at  the  par¬ 
tition  which  runs  at  right  an¬ 
gles  with  the  entry. 

SECOND  STORT. 

c.  Closets. 
e.  Clothes  rooms. 

/.  Flues  for  gas  and  warm  air. 
g.  Teacher’s  desk. 
v.  Ventiducts. 

Two  of  the  rooms,  at  least,  in  a  building  of  this  size  and  grade,  should 
have  single  seats  and  desks,  for  the  larger  and  more  advanced  Pupils.  Each, 
thus  furnished,  would  seat' about  fifty,  and  would  accommodate  somewhat 
more  than  the  usual  proportion  of  High  School  Pupils,  seven  hundred 
being  the  total  capacity  of  the  School. 

The  noble  lecture  hall  on  the  third  story,  (forty  by  seventy  feet,)  is  a 
most  desirable  and  useful  feature  in  this  plan.  Here  may  not  only  the 
ordinary  exercises  of  the  School,  in  declamation  and  public  reading  to  a 
large  audience  (a  part  of  instruction,  by  the  by,  too  much  neglected)  be 
performed,  but  the  examinations  and  other  public  exhibitions  of  the  Pupils 
may  take  place,  in  a  way  to  show  fully  to  the  public  the  condition  of  the 
institution  and  the  progress  of  the  Scholars.  And,  though  such  a  hall 
should  never  be  permitted  to  be  used  for  any  but  educational,  literary, 
scientific  or  moral  purposes,  yet  within  these  bounds  it  will  often,  in  vari¬ 
ous  ways,  accommodate  and  improve  the  community  whose  honor  it  is  that 
it  was  erected.  Here  there  will  be  no  local  associations  arising  from  those 
low  exhibitions,  mountebank  tricks,  or  quackeries  in  science,  which  pollute 
so  many  public  halls.  From  these  the  Common  School  should  be  kept  as 
free  as  the  Church. 

SPECIFICATION. 

This  plan  differs  considerably  from  the  others  of  this  class.  A  full  spe- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


123 


cification  will  therefore  be  given, 
four  feet ;  three  stories  high,  the 
first  and  second,  fourteen  feet, and 
third,  fifteen  feet,  each  in  the 
clear  of  floor  and  ceiling ;  eleva¬ 
tion  of  the  first  floor  three  feet. 

For  the  arrangements  of  the 
interior,  the  ground  plans,  where 
they  are  fully  explained,  are  re¬ 
ferred  to. 

THIRD  STORY. 

c.  Closets. 
g.  Teachers’  Desks, 
ft.  Registers  for  warm  air. 
p.  Platform. 
v.  Ventiducts. 


The  building  is  seventy-four  by  eighty- 


EXCAVATIONS. 

The  cellar  will  be  under  the  whole  building  and  eight  feet  in  the  clear, 
trenches  will  be  dug  twelve  inches  below  the  cellar  level  for  all  the  foun¬ 
dations  in  the  cellar,  and  for  those  of  the  portico  or  other  outside  steps, 
three  feet  below  the  level  of  the  pavement,  or  all  deeper  if  necessary  to 
secure  a  good  and  firm  foundation.  All  the  earth  not  necessary  for  grading 
the  lot,  to  be  removed  from  the  premises ;  also  all  rubbish  upon  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  the  building ;  and  the  same  delivered  up  in  a  condition  fit  for 
occupancy. 

For  the  specification  of  the  privy  well  and  fencing,  reference  will  be  had 
to  No.  4,  of  this  class. 


MASONRY. 

The  cellar  walls  to  be  of  good  building  stone,  large  and  flat,  and  solidly 
bedded  in  mortar ;  the  outer  walls  twenty-four  inches  thick  up  to  the  level 
of  the  first  floor  ;  the  foundations  to  be  laid  with  large  stone,  cross-wise  the 
thickness  of  the  wall,  to  project  six  inches  from  each  face  of  the  same. 
The  outer  walls  above  the  grade  of  the  lot  to  be  built  up  with  hammer 
dressed  range  work,  in  courses  not  less  than  twelve  inches  thick,  and  to 
finish  on  the  top  with  a  neatly  tooled  course,  fourteen  inches  in  thickness, 
with  the  edge  bevelled  two  inches  from  the  face  which  forms  the  line  of 
brick  work  ;  the  work  to  be  bonded  with  frequent  headers,  and  the  inside 
to  be  dashed  with  mortar.  The  walls  of  the  cellar  door-way  and  foun¬ 
dations  of  portico  and  door-ways,  will  be  eighteen  inches  thick ;  the  foun¬ 
dations  of  piers  supporting  the  girders  will  be  twenty-two  by  twenty-eight 
inches,  of  large  and  flat  stone,  levelled  on  the  top  to  receive  the  brick 
work ;  all  openings  to  be  made  as  required  by  the  plans ;  and  all  the  cellar 
windows  excepting  one,  will  have  cast  iron  guards  inserted,  and  all  will 
have  hammer  dressed  sills. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


324 


CUT  STONE. 

The  sills  of  all  the  entrance  doors  will  he  of  stone,  eight  inches  thick? 
nine  feet  six  inches  long  and  two  feet  six  inches  wide ;  all  window  sills 
five  inches  thick  and  heads  eight  inches,  and  not  less  than  eight  inches  on 
the  bed  ;  lintels  for  the  doors  thirteen  inches  thick  and  thirteen  inches  bed  ; 
steps  of  the  portico  and  door-ways  twelve  inch  tread  and  eight  inch  rise 
when  finished.  The  chimney  to  be  capped  with  stone  eight  inches  in 
thickness.  A  set  of  cellar  door-cheeks,  head  and  sill,  of  stone  will  be  re¬ 
quired.  All  the  above  stone  work  to  be  well  selected,  and  wherever  ne¬ 
cessary,  to  be  well  cramped  with  iron ;  all  drilling  and  securing  of  cramps 
and  hinges,  to  be  done  by  the  stone  cutter. 

ERICK  LAYING. 

All  the  walls  from  the  stone  base  will  be  of  well  burnt  brick,  and  on  the 
exterior  faced  with  good  pressed  brick,  the  thickness  as  indicated  by  the 
plans.  All  the  walls  will  be  carried  up  to  the  roof,  excepting  one  division 
wall  which  terminates  with  the  floor  of  the  third  story.  The  frieze  around 
the  building  is  to  be  of  brick  and  project  one  and  a  half  inches.  All  flues 
for  gas,  hot  air,  or  ventilation,  to  be  built  where  shown  on  the  plans,  and 
thoroughly  and  smoothly  pargeted.  The  gas  flues  to  be  topped  out  with 
pressed  brick  and  capped  as  hereinbefore  mentioned;  all  flues  to  be  carried 
up  separately  and  their  full  size,  as  at  the  commencement.  Eight  brick 
piers  to  be  built  in  the  cellar  for  the  girders,  eighteen  by  twenty-six  inches 
at  the  bottom,  and  tapering  up  to  twelve  by  eighteen  inches  at  the  top,  and 
capped  with  hammer  dressed  stone,  ten  inches  thick  and  the  size  of  the  pier 
at  the  top.  The  bricklayer  will  be  required  to  set  the  heaters  under  the 
direction  of  the  manufacturer  or  his  agent ;  and  all  requisite  paving  and 
water  courses  and  bricklaying  of  the  privy,  to  be  done  as  referred  to  in  the 
foregoing  part  of  this  specification.  The  work  to  be  done  in  a  substantial 
manner,  and  the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand  and  lime. 

CARPENTER  WORK. 

•  The  flooring  joists  of  the  first  story  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  all 
the  others  three  by  fifteen,  and  backed,  and  blocked  up  their  whole  bearing 
on  the  walls;  placed  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  and  two  lines  of  cross¬ 
bridging  through  each  tier;  all  framing  will  require  double  trimmers 
pinned  together.  The  first  floor  of  joists  will  be  supported  in  the  middle  @f 
the  rooms  by  girders  eight  by  fourteen  inches,  which  bear  upon  the  outer 
walls  and  brick  piers.  The  floors  of  the  second  and  third  stories  will  be 
strengthened  by  tension  rods  of  one  inch  round  iron,  run  through  each 
tier  with  double  nuts  well  set  up.  Five  set  of  principal  rafters  will  be  re¬ 
quired,  the  tie  beams  eight  by  twelve,  rafters  eight  by  ten,  braces  and 
struts  six  by  six;  to  have  upright  one  and  a  half  inch  round  iron  rods, 
with  cast  iron  heads  or  saddles  and  shoes,  and  all  framed  and  bolted  in  a 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


125 


substantial  manner ;  all  bolts  to  have  double  nuts  and  washers.  The  pur- 
lins  to  be  six  by  eight,  common  rafters  three  by  five,  and  twenty  inches 
between  centres.  The  principal  rafters  to  be  levelled  upon  pieces  of  oak 
four  by  nine,  each  five  feet  long,  well  bedded  in  mortar.  Ceiling  joist, 
two  by  eight  inches  and  sixteen  inches  between  centres,  will  be  secured 
between  the  bearers,  by  cleating  them,  and  notching  the  joists,  and  firmly 
nailing  the  same.  The  joists  will  be  one  and  a  half  inches  below  the  lower 
edge  of  the  tie  beam,  and  the  tie  beams  stripped  cross-wise  to  secure  the 
ceiling  against  cracking.  Look-out  joists  will  be  pinned  into  a  three  by 
twelve  inch  joist,  for  the  support  of  the  eave.  The  cornice  and  eave  will 
be  in  accordance  with  the  elevation,  and  with  plate  No.  13,  “  Architectural 
Details.”  The  rafters  will  be  sheathed  and  covered  with  the  best  white 
pine  shingles  butted 
and  jointed.  The  gut¬ 
ters  will  be  prepared 
with  stops  for  tinning, 
and  the  valleys  and 
gutters  lined  with  the 
best  cross  leaded  tin,  to 
have  four  five  inch  con¬ 
ductors  of  the  same 
kind  of  tin,  with  an 
iron  section  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  each.  A  trap¬ 
door  will  be  made  in 
the  roof,  hung  with  straps  and  hooks,  and  secured  with  hook  and  staple  , 
a  ladder  will  be  made  to  approach  the  same,  and  around  and  under  the 
ladder,  the  loft  will  be  floored  with  rough  boards. 

WINDOWS. 

All  the  window  frames  will  be  made  plank  faced  and  moulded  ;  sash  all 
double  hung  with  best  axle  pulleys,  patent  cord  and  weights,  all  one  and 
three  quarter  inches  thick ;  on  the  front  and  rear  twenty-four  lights,  and 
in  the  flanks  twenty-eight  lights  each,  twelve  by  eighteen  inch  glass.  The 
cellar  windows  will  have  sash,  hung  to  a  strip,  secured  against  the  walls,  and 
fastened  shut  with  bolts,  and  open  with  hooks  and  staples,  secured  to  the 
joists.  Each  School-room  on  the  first  floor  will  have  a  window  in  the  di¬ 
vision  wall,  twelve  lights,  twelve  by  seventeen  inch  glass,  sash  one  and 
three  quarter  inches  thick,  double  hpng,  same  as  those  described,  the  frames 
to  be  set  five  feet  from  the  floor.  The  entrance  door  frames  front  and  rear 
will  be  six  feet  wide  and  ten  feet  high,  with  side  lights  and  transom  sash  , 
the  inside  jambs  to  be  deepened,  so  that  the  doors  can  be  hung  to  open 


126 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


outwards  in  the  recess  of  the  door  frame.  The  entrance  doors  to  be  in 
pairs,  each  four  panels,  two  inches  thick,  and  moulded  on  the  outside,  hung 
with  four  by  four  inch  butts,  three  on  each  door,  and  secured  with  iron 
flush  bolts  on  the  centre  joint,  and  eight  inch  rebated  mortice  locks.  All 
the  inside  doors  to  be  one  and  three  cptarter  inches  thick,  six  panels  each, 
and  moulded  on  both  sides,  hung  with  four  by  four  inch  butts,  and  secured 
with  three  and  a  half  inch  mortice  locks ;  and  over  each  School-room  door 
a  transom  sash  will  be  made  and  hung  on  pivots. 

FLOORS,  &c. 

All  the  floors  will  be  laid  with  one  and  a  quarter  inch  yellow  pine  or 
oak,  planed  and  grooved,  well  nailed  to  the  joists  and  joints  shot.  Up¬ 
right  wainscoting,  three  feet  high,  will  be  put  around  all  the  rooms,  planed, 
grooved  and  capped  on  a  line  with  the  outside  window  sills.  The  clothes- 
rooms  and  closets,  will  have  rails,  and  the  requisite  number  of  the  best 
quality  clothes-hooks  screwed  into  the  same  ;  wash-boards  all  to  be  eight 
inches  wide,  including  one  and  a  half  inch  moulding  on  the  top. 

STAIRS. 

The  stairs  will  be  built  according  to  the  plan,  on  four  three  inch  bearers. 
Steps  to  be  one  and  a  half  inches  thick  of  ash  plank,  risers  one  inch,  of  the 
same  material;  the  steps  to  be  enclosed  within  a  two  inch  plank  partition, 
planed  and  grooved  and  to  have  a  door  hung  and  secured  at  the  top,  opening 
into  the  large  room  of  the  third  story.  A  flight  of  rough  steps  will  be 
continued  to  the  cellar  in  the  usual  manner  of  such  stairs  ;  a  rough  flight  will 
also  be  put  up  in  the  outside  cellar  door- way ;  the  cellar  doors  to  be  made 
in  pairs  battoned,  hung  with  straps  and  hooks  and  secured  with  hasp  and 
padlock.  A  wall  rail  of  cherry  plank  two  and  a  half  by  three  inches,  will 
be  secured  on  each  side  of  the  stair  by  iron  stays. 

closets,  & c. 

The  space  over  the  hall,  in  the  second  story,  to  be  divided  into  four 
closets  with  door  and  window  to  each ;  the  doors  to  have  transom  sashes 
corresponding  with  the  other  doors,  and  the  windows  to  have  twelve  lights 
twelve  by  fifteen  inch  glass  all  double  hung.  All  the  jamb  casings  of  the 
doors  will  be  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick,  rebated  on  each  edge,  and 
all  dressings  to  be  five  inches  wide,  and  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  neatly 
moulded. 

FLUES,  &c. 

Ventilating  flues  will  be  made  where  they  are  marked  on  the  plan, 
and  faced  on  the  front,  with  sound  pine  boards,  grooved  and  put  together 
with  screws,  made  air  tight,  and  all  continued  separatety  to  the  loft,  where 
they  will  converge  to  the  centre,  in  shafts  of  the  combined  capacity  of  those 
emptying  into  them.  The  centre  will  be  finished  above  the  apex  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


127 


roof  one  foot,  to  receive  the  ventilator.  The  flues  will  have  openings  top 
and  bottom  in  each  story,  with  hinged  or  pivot  shutters.  Platforms  will 
be  made  according  to  the  plans;  and  not  less  than  one  hundred  square  feet 
of  black-board,  or  such  other  black  surface  as  the  Directors  may  select,  shall 
be  put  up  in  each  of  the  eleven  rooms  of  the  building,  and  at  such  places 
as  they  may  direct. 

PORTICO. 

A  portico  will  be  built  over  the  front  entrance,  as  shown  on  the  plans 
and  according  to  Plate  No.  13,  “  Architectural  Details”  ;  to  be  sheathed  and 
covered  with  the  best  cross  leaded  tin,  painted  two  coats  on  the  upper  side, 
with  one  four  inch  tin  conductor  continued  to  the  ground  and  a  spout  stone 
at  the  bottom. 

BLINDS  AND  PRIVIES. 

The  windows  will  all  have  one  and  a  half  inch  rolling  blinds  made  in 
four  folds,  hung  with  back  flaps  and  secured  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  privy  will  be  built  according  to  the  specification  of  No.  9,  Class  IV. 

PLASTERING. 

The  walls,  ceilings  and  partitions  will  be  plastered  with  two  coats  of 
brown  mortar,  and  one  of  hard  white  finish.  The  mortar  to  be  composed 
of  clean  sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered 
hair.  The  laths  to  be  sound.  The  hall  and  stair-ways  will  be  finished 
with  stucco,  and  laid  off  in  blocks  in  imitation  of  cut  stone,  and  tinted  as 
directed. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted  and  the  conductors,  spouts,  &c.,  will 
receive  three  coats  of  pure  white  lead  and  best  linseed  oil ;  the  front  portico 
to  have  an  additional  coat  and  to  be  sanded  two  coats ;  all  the  doors  and 
wainscoting  to  be  grained  in  imitation  of  oak  and  varnished ;  the  hand- 
railing  to  be  varnished  two  coats ;  the  sash  are  to  be  glazed  with  the  best 
American  glass,  well  bedded,  bradded  and  back  puttied. 

memorandum;. 

All  the  materials  of  the  different  parts  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the 
workmanship  to  be  done  in  a  neat  and  substantial  manner,  and  all  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  board  of  Directors  or  their  proper  committee. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  according  to  the  foregoing  plans  and  specifications, 
as  erected  in  the  borough  of  Washington,  was  about  fifteen  thousand  dollars, 
without  furniture.  The  furniture  will  cost  about  two  thousand  five  hun¬ 
dred  dollars. 


128 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


CLASS  IV.  — No.  S. 


This  building  is  of  a  different  shape  and  arrangement  from  the  one  last 
described.  The  Hancock  School  in  Coates  street,  Philadelphia,  has  recently 
been  altered  according  to  the  same  plan.  The  first  floor  has  seats  for  two 
hundred  and  fifty  Pupils,  and  as  the  second  and  third  are  laid  out  in  the 
same  manner,  the  total  capacity  of  the  house  would  seem  to  be  for  seven 
hundred  and  fifty. 


A  peculiarity  in  the  plan  of  this  School-house  is  seen  in  the  small  size 
of  the  two  rooms  in  each  end  of  the  building  on  all  the  floors ;  there  being 
seats  for  only  thirty-six  Pupils  in  each.  Probably  the  mode  of  instruction 
embraces  the  idea  of  a  constant  change  of  Pupils  from  one  Teacher  to 
another ;  and  if  so,  the  four  corner  rooms  on  each  floor,  are,  in  effect,  class 
rooms,  the  main  room  in  the  centre,  being  the  study  hall,  under  the  constant 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Principal. 


FIRST  STORY  FOR  GIRLS. 

a.  Boys’  entrance  and  stairs  to 
second  and  third  stories. 
bb.  Girls’  entrance  and  clothes 
rooms. 

cc.  Closets  on  the  Teachers’ plat¬ 
forms. 

d.  Principal’s  class  room  and  pas¬ 

sage  three  feet  wide. 

e.  do.  do.  do. 

f.  Flues  for  warm  air  or  gas,  and 

ventilation. 

g.  Principal’s  desk. 

hh.  Passage  three  feet  wide. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


123 

Under  1  his  system  of  government  and  instruction,  for  which  the  glass 
partition  throughout,  and  the  wide  central  passages,  afford  full  facilities, 
each  story  would  require  five  Teachers — a  Principal  and  four  assistants — and 
each  would  thus  constitute  one  large  School.  The  two  class-rooms  (mark¬ 
ed  a)  on  the  second  and  third  stories,  will  be  found  very  suitable  for  recita¬ 
tion  purposes,  if  either  or  both  of  those  stories  be  appropriated  to  Pupils  of 
an  advanced  grade. 

The  first  story  is  for  girls;  the  second  and  third  stories  are  for  boys, 
and  are  nearly  similar  to  the  first  story. 

SPECIFICATION, 

This  represents  the  ground  plan  of  a  building  forty-seven  by  ninety-two 
feet;  three  stories  high, 
first  and  second  fourteen, 
and  third  thirteen  feet  each 
in  the  clear ;  pitch  of  roof 
seven  feet  and  height  of  the 
first  floor  two  feet  six  inch¬ 
es.  A  general  description 
of  this  plan  will  only  be 
given,  and  for  particulars 
reference  will  be  made  to  the  succeeding  number  of  this  class,  which  will 
have  a  full  specification. 

This  building  is  three  stories  high,  divided  into  class-rooms  separated  by 
glass  partitions,  the  first  story  being  for  the  girls,  and  the  second  and 
third  for  the  boys. 

It  is  intended  to  lie 
of  stone  and  stucco¬ 
ed  ;  but  if  brick  is 
more  economical,  it 
would  answer  equal¬ 
ly  well. 

In  this  building  the 
two  transverse  parti¬ 
tions  are  to  be  sup¬ 
ported  by  piers  in  the 
cellar,  the  girders  to 
bear  on  the  top  of  the 
piers  and  the  walls 
of  the  flank ;  and  the 
joists,  arranged  lon¬ 
gitudinally,  to  be  doubled  under  the  other  glass  partitions,  as  described  in 
17 


SCHOOL  ARC  1 1  IT  EC  T  U  R  E . 


13© 

plan  referred  to.  The  exterior,  viz  :  eave,  cornice,  cupola,  windows  and 
door  dressing,  will  be  made  in  accordance  with  Plate  No.  10,  “  Architec¬ 
tural  Details.”  If  the  building  should  be  built  of  stone,  the  walls  will  be 
the  same  thickness  as  in  No.  5,  of  this  class;  but  if  of  brick,  they  will  be 
similar  to  those  of  No.  0.  The  doors  and  window  sills,  and  the  platforms 
and  steps  are  to  be  of  cut  stone. 

In  all  other  particulars,  reference  will  be  had  to  the  plan  of  No.  9,  Class 
IY,  as  the  work  and  material  will  be  the  same ;  the  difference  being  only 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms  and  in  the  details  of  the  exterior. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  after  this  plan  would  be  fourteen  thousand  dollars. 


CLASS  IV.  — No.  9. 

The  plates  now  presented  are  those  representing  the  exterior  and  ground 
plans  of  the  “  North  East  Grammar  School,”  in  New  street,  Philadelphia. 
It  is  calculated  for  eight  hundred  and  sixteen  Pupils,  and  not  less  than 
fifteen  Teachers. 


This  building  seems  to  possess  all  the  improvements  adapted  to  the 
liberal  mode  of  public  instruction  pursued  in  the  chief  city  of  the  State. 
The  glass  partitions,  affording  the  principal  Teacher  a  full  and  constant 
view  of  all  the  Schools  or  divisions  on  the  same  floor,  are  a  feature  almost 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


131 


peculiar  to  Philadelphia.  The  separation  of  the  entrances  to  the  lower 
story  from  those  leading  to  the  stairways  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  build¬ 
ing,  is  a  convenient  and  proper  arrangement.  The  number  of  windows  is 
such  as  to  insure  full  light  to  every  part  of  the  house. 


FIRST  FLOOR. 

<nabb.  Entrance  lobbies  to  first  floor. 
cc.  Teachers’  communication  between 
class-rooms. 
d.  Clothes  rooms 
ff.  Flues  for  gas  and  warm  air. 
gggg.  Teachers’  desks  on  platforms  six 
by  eight  feet. 
tnm.  Entrances  to  stairs. 
v.  Large  ventilating  shaft,  to  which  no 
gas  flues  are  attached. 


The  rooms  containing  from  forty-eight  to  sixty  Pupils  each,  or  a  number 
sufficient  for  one  Teacher,  neither  recitations  in  separate  class-rooms,  nor 
changes  of  Pupils  from  one  Teacher  to  another,  seem  to  be  provided  for. 
This  being  understood,  the  building  appears  to  be  admirably  arranged  for 
the  system  of  instruction  and  government  intended.  The  chief  defect  in 
arrangement  would  seem  to  be  the  small  allowance  of  clothes-rooms  and 
closets,  for  so  large  a  number  of  Teachers  and  Pupils. 


SECOND  AND  THIRD  STORIES. 

tsbcdc.  Are  school-rooms. 

f.  Flues. 

g.  Lobby  for  second  story  entrance. 

h.  Lobby  for  third  story  entrance. 
k.  Shows  the  third  story  stairs. 

SPECIFICATION-. 

These  represent  the  ground  plan 
of  a  building  eighty-two  feet  on  the 
front  by  fifty-five  feet  deep,  with  pedi¬ 
ments  front  and  back,  projecting 
about  eight  feet  from  the  line  of  the  building ;  three  stories  high,  first  and 
second  stories  fifteen,  and  third  fourteen  feet  each  in  the  clear;  pitch  of 
roof  nine  feet,  and  elevation  of  the  first  floor  two  feet  six  inches.  For  di¬ 
mensions  and  general  arrangements,  reference  will  be  had  to  the  foregoing 
plans  and  explanations  of  the  same. 


Sc/l(?06 


EXCAVATIONS. 

The  cellar  will  be  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  building,  and 
seven  feet  six  inches  deep  in  the  clear.  The  foundations  for  all  the  walls 
will  be  sunk  twelve  inches  below  the  cellar  level,  or  deeper  if  necessary  for 
the  stability  of  the  structure. 


cLTICOL  ARC  lU-TECTUKEL 


JO-A 


CELLAR  STONE  WORK. 

All  the  walls  in  the  cellar  will  he  of  good  quarry  building  stone,  and 
the  foundation  course,  large  and  flat  and  solidly  bedded  in  mortar;  the 
outer  wall,  to  the  level  of  the  cellar  floor,  will  be  thirty  inches  thick,  and 
up  to  the  line  of  pavement  twenty-four  inches  ;  the  division  walls  for  the 
partitions,  will  be  eighteen  inches  up  to  the  level  of  the  first  floor  of  joists. 
All  the  facings  of  the  walls  to  be  smoothly  dashed ;  the  mortar  to  be  com¬ 
posed  of  sharp  sand  or  gravel  and  wood  burnt  lime. 

CUT  STONE. 

All  the  outside  door  sills,  steps  and  platforms,  and  all  the  window-sills 
will  be  of  marble,  or  free  stone,  smoothly  dressed  and  free  from  defects ; 
two  hydrant  stones  will  be  provided  for  the  yards,  and  two  iron  scrapers  to 
each  step ;  cellar  door-cheeks  and  sill  will  likewise  be  of  cut  stone. 

BRICK  WORK. 

All  the  walls,  from  the  cellar  upwards  will  be  of  brick  ;  the  outside  up 
to  the  first  floor  of  joists  will  be  twenty-four  inches  thick,  and  from  that 
level  up  to  the  second  floor  of  joists  twenty-two  inches,  and  from  that  to 
the  square  of  the  building  eighteen  inches.  The  vestibule  walls  will  be 
thirteen  inches  thick  one  story  high,  and  the  remainder  nine  inches.  The 
front  and  flanks  are  to  be  faced  with  the  best  pressed  bricks,  (laid  Flemish 
bond)  and  the  back  with  the  best  dark  stretchers.  A  base  will  be  formed 
around  the  building  capped  with  moulded  brick.  All  the  outside  walls, 
above  the  level  of  the  first  floor,  will  be  laid  with  a  hollow  space  of  two 
inches  between  the  inner  face  and  the  body  of  the  wall,  to  be  bonded  to¬ 
gether  with  alternate  headers  every  fifth  course.  The  walls  of  the  tympa¬ 
num  will  be  thirteen  inches  solid;  all  flues  tor  heating  and  ventilation  to 
be  well  pargeted. 

A  ventilating  shaft  will  be  built  from  the  cellar  up  to  the  "oof,  smoothly 
plastered  on  the  inside ;  to  have  an  iron  door  inserted  in  each  story,  and  to 
be  arranged  to  admit  of  a  stove  being  placed  in  the  shaft,  for  summer  ven¬ 
tilation. 

The  piers  in  the  cellar  to  support  the  iron  posts,  are  all  to  be  two  feet 
three  inches  by  three  feet,  tapering  upwards  to  two  feet,  built  with  straight 
hard  brick,  and  capped  with  stone  two  indies  thick.  The  cellar  windows 
will  all  be  arched  at  the  head ;  arches  will  also  be  pat  over  all  the  other 
openings  in  the  cellar,  and  over  all  the  lintels  in  the  upper  stories;  the 
bricks  will  all  be  laid  with  clean  sharp  sand  and  fresh  wood  burnt  lime. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  joists  of  all  the  floors  are  to  be  three  by  fourteen  inches,  sixteen 
inches  between  centres,  backed,  and  a  line  of  cross  bridging  through  each 
tier;  and,  in  addition,  a  chain  bar  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  round  iron 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


133 


With  nuts  at  each  end,  will  be  inserted.  Each  tier  of  joists  will  be  sup¬ 
ported  by  girders  six  by  fourteen  inches,  to  bear  upon  the  iron  posts  5 
anchois  will  be  secured  on 
the  outer  ends,  and  likewise 
over  the  vestibules  ;  the  roof 
is  to  be  constructed  with  four 
principal  rafters,  as  shown  in 
the  detail  drawings ;  the 
common  rafters  to  be  three 
by  six  inches  and  twenty 
inches  between  centres,  and 
to  be  overlaid  with  sound 
boarding  and  prepared  for 
metal  roofing. 

All  ventilating  flues  are  to 
be  formed  in  the  floor  and 
ceiling,  and  all  connections 
with  the  main  shaft  will  be  air  tight.  The  Teachers5  platforms  will  be 
raised  eight  inches.  Pin  rails  will  be  put  up  in  the  clothes-rooms,  and  the 
requisite  number  of  hooks  well  secured  to  the  same.  A  movable  step 
ladder  will  be  made  to  the  loft.  Closets  will  be  fitted  up  neatly  with 
shelves.  The  entrance  doors  to  the  stairs  will  be  hung  to  open  outwards, 
as  also  the  doors  opening  into  the  outside  vestibules. 

The  cupola  will  be  framed  and  connected  with  the  main  roof  in  a  sub¬ 
stantial  manner,  and  all  exterior  dressings,  viz:  eave  and  cornice,  cupola, 
window  heads,  &c.,  will  be  in  accordance  with  plate  No.  11,  “  Architectural 
Details.”  Outside  cellar  doors  will  be  made  and  hung,  and  a  step-ladder 
placed  in  the  door- way. 

FLOORS. 

All  the  floors  are  to  be  laid  with  the  best  quality  heart  yellow  pine  one 
and  a  quarter  inch  boards,  planed  and  grooved,  well  nailed  to  the  joists  and 
joints  shot.  The  second  and  third  floors  will  be  deafened  by  cleating  the 
joists,  and  flooring  roughly  between  them,  and  filling  the  space  to  the  top 
of  the  joists  with  two  inches  of  mortar. 

STAIRS. 

The  stairs  are  to  be  put  up  on  strong  carriages,  with  steps  one  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  of  heart  yellow  pine  or  ash,  glued  and  blocked  to  the  risers, 
and  let  into  the  wall  string ;  to  be  enclosed  with  one  and  a  half  inch  plank 
partitions  planed  and  grooved  together,  with  wall  rails  of  cherry  well  se¬ 
cured  with  iron  stays. 

WINDOAVS,  DOORS,  &c. 

The  windows  are  all  to  be  reveal,  sash  one  and  three  quarter  inches  thick, 


^SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN  Sr  — 


134 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


made  in  three  parts,  six  lights  each,  twelve  by  eighteen  inch  glass  ;  the  top 
and  bottom  sash  to  be  hung  with  the  best  axle  pulleys,  cord  and  weights, 
and  the  centre  to  be  stationary ;  the  partition  dividing  the  class-rooms, 
will  have  sash  made  and  hung  in  the  same  manner  as  those  in  the  walls,  and 
will  be  wainscoted  on  each  side,  three  feet  high  above  the  floor.  The  walls 
will  also  be  wainscoted  in  the  same  manner,  and  capped  on  the  top  on  a 
line  with  the  inside  window  sills.  The  vestibules  in  the  centres  of  the  par¬ 
titions  are  to  be  enclosed  with  sash  doors  on  three  sides,  and  a  close  door 
opening  into  the  hall.  Inside  panel  shutters  will  be  made  in  the  first  stogy, 
and  blinds  in  the  second  and  third,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  in  four 
folds,  hung  to  open  against  the  jambs,  without  boxes,  and  cut  at  the  upper 
meeting  rail.  The  outer  doors  are  all  to  be  one  and  three  quarter  inches 
thick,  bead  and  butt  on  both  sides,  and  hung  with  four  and  a  half  inch  butts, 
three  on  each  jamb,  and  all  to  be  secured  with  eight  inch  rim  knob  locks ; 
all  the  room  doors  will  be  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  bead  and  butt,  hung 
with  four  by  four  inch  butts  and  secured  with  four  inch  mortice  locks. 

All  the  lumber  in  the  above  work,  to  be  of  the  best  quality  tor  the  dif¬ 
ferent  parts  and  all  thoroughly  seasoned. 

HARDWARE  AND  IRON  WORE. 

Strong  cast  iron  guards  will  be  made  and  inserted  in  all  the  cellar  win¬ 
dows,  excepting  two,  which  will  have  wrought  iron  gates  secured  by  hasps 
and  padlocks.  The  partitions  and  ceilings  are  to  be  supported  by  cast  iron 
posts  as  sliowm  in  plate  No.  12,  “  Architectural  Details.”  All  requisite 
registers  for  the  ventilators,  iron  rods,  bolts  and  beds  for  the  roof,  and  an¬ 
chors  and  straps  for  the  joists,  camber  rods,  and  all  other  iron  work  neces¬ 
sary  to  complete  the  building,  to  be  provided,  and  to  be  of  the  best  quality. 

TIN  WORK. 

The  roof  will  be  overlaid  with  the  best  quality  cross  leaded  tin,  put  on 
standing  grooves,  and  well  cleated  to  the  boards ;  to  be  painted  on  both 
sides,  the  upper,  two  coats ;  all  requisite  gutters  to  be  made,  and  four  five 
inch  tin  conductors  to  be  provided,  and  secured  to  the  walls,  and  finished 
at  the  bottom  with  a  section  of  iron. 

PLASTERING. 

All  the  walls  and  ceilings  will  have  two  coats  of  brown  mortar,  and  one 
of  hard  wdiite  finish ;  the  mortar  to  be  composed  of  clean  sharp  sand  and 
wood  burnt  lime,  and  well  mixed  with  slaughtered  hair ;  all  lath  to  be 
sound  and  free  from  bark  ;  the  jambs  of  the  windows  will  be  plastered,  and 
an'gles  chamfered. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  and  iron  work  usually  painted  will  have  three  coats  of  pare 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil.  in  such  tints  of  plain  colors  as  the  Board  or 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


135 


committee  may  desire ;  all  the  wainscoting  and  doors  will  be  grained  in 
imitation  of  oak  and  varnished ;  all  the  sash  will  be  glazed  with  the  best 
American  glass,  well  bedded,  bradded  and  puttied. 

PRIVY  AND  FENCING. 

A  well  will  be  dug  in  the  yard  eight  by  twelve  feet  in  the  clear,  of  oval 
form  and  twenty  feet  deep,  walled  up  with  hard  brick  nine  inches  thick, 
and  substantially  arched  over  at  the  top.  A  building  will  be  erected  over 
the  well  ten  by  fourteen  feet,  with  nine  inch  outside  walls,  and  four  inch 
division  walls,  seven  feet  six  inches  in  height  of  story  in  the  clear ;  to  be 
divided  into  three  apartments,  with  ledge  door  to  each,  hung  to  scantling 
frames  with  straps  and  hooks ;  one  door  secured  with  a  lock,  the  others  with 
latches,  hooks  and  staples ;  to  be  roofed  with  shingles,  floored  and  fitted  up 
with  plank  seats  and  risers,  and  each  apartment  with  a  small  Venetian  slat 
window  in  the  wall ;  all  to  be  plastered  complete  and  painted  three  coats. 
To  conceal  the  doors  in  each  yard,  ihere  will  be  made  a  slat  screen  ten  feet 
long,  and  the  height  of  the  fence.  A  cast  iron  urinal  will  be  required  in 
the  boys’  yard,  to  connect  Avith  the  well ;  a  ventilating  flue  nine  by  twenty- 
four  inches,  will  be  constructed  in  the  centre,  to  extend  from  the  bottom  of 

t 

the  seats  to  eight  feet  above  the  roof,  neatly  capped  on  the  top. 

All  requisite  fencing  will  be  put  up  six  feet  six  inches  high,  planed  and 
grooved  and  neatly  capjDed  on  the  top ;  the  posts  to  be  locust  or  red  cedar, 
and  to  be  not  more  than  eight  feet  between  centres.  A  gate  will  be  in 
each  yard,  hung  Avith  strong  hooks  and  straps,  and  secured  Avith  latches, 
hasps  and  padlocks. 

MEMORANDUM. 

As  the  items  of  paving  and  plumbing  are  governed  by  local  circum¬ 
stances,  specifications  of  them  are  here  omitted. 

The  contractor  is  to  furnish,  at  his  own  cost  and  expense,  all  the  mate¬ 
rial  and  Avorkmanship  necessary  to  erect,  finish  and  complete  the  building, 
according  to  the  above  plans  and  this  specification. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  a  building  after  this  plan  Avould  be  sixteen  thousand  dollars. 


CLASS  IV.  — No.  10. 

The  High  School  of  Philadelphia,  is  the  last  Avhich  will  be  presented  and 
fittingly  concludes  the  series.  Of  this  noble  structure  it  is  neither  deemed 
necessary  to  give  a  full  detailed  description  nor  a  Avorking  specification. 
A  brief  account  of  the  institution,  Avith  a  description  of  some  particular 


130 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


features  in  the  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  building,  will  be  more  gener¬ 
ally  useful  and  interesting.  These  have  been  furnished  by  Professor  Hart, 
the  Principal  of  the  institution. 

This  School  went  into  operation  in  October,  1838,  with  four  Professors, 
and  sixty-three  Students.  It  has  since  been  gradually  enlarged  in  plan  and 
in  numbers,  until  it  has  now  twelve  Professors,  four  assistants  and  six  hun¬ 
dred  Students.  The  whole  number  admitted  up  to  July,  1855,  was  three 
thousand  two  hundred  and  twelve. 

The  building  originally  erected  for  the  use  of  the  School  was  in  Juniper 
street,  back  of  the  United  States  mint.  It  had  been  for  several  years  in¬ 
adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  School,  and  in  1853,  the  Controllers  sold  the 
old  building  and  erected  the  new  one,  larger  and  more  commodious,  at  the 
corner  of  Broad  and  Green  streets.  The  new  building  was  finished  and 
dedicated  to  the  purposes  of  its  erection  on  the  28th  of  June,  1854.  The 
entiie  cost  of  the  lot,  building  and  furniture  was  seventy-five  thousand  dol¬ 
lars: —  The  cost  of  the  lot  being  seventeen  thousand  dollars. 


S 


The  lot  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  front  on  Broad  street,  by  ninety- 
five  feet  deep.  It  has  Green  street  for  a  boundary  on  the  north,  and  Bran¬ 
dywine  street  on  the  south.  The  building  stands  back  five  feet  from  the 
line  of  the  street,  and  is  one  hundred  feet  long  by  seventy  feet  deep.  This 
gives  an  open  area  of  twenty  feet  in  the  rear  and  twenty-five  feet  at  each 
end,  besides  a  wide  public  street  on  three  sides.  The  building,  therefore, 
offers  free  access  on  all  sides  for  light  and  air,  and  is  comparatively  free 
from  noise  and  the  risk  of  fire. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


137 


The  building  is  constructed  throughout  in  a  substantial  manner,  with 
good  materials,  and  with  a  main  reference  to  utility  rather  than  ornament, 
although  the  latter  has  not  been  altogether  lost  sight  of,  The  walls  through¬ 
out  are  built  hollow,  to  prevent  dampness ;  the  outside  walls  and  those 
on  each  side  of  the  transverse  hall  have  an  average  thickness  of  eighteen 
inches,  while  those  separating  the  various  class-rooms  have  a  thickness  of 
thirteen  inches.  The  exterior  is  built  of  the  best  quality  of  pressed  brick. 
The  plainness  of  the  external  facade  is  relieved  by  projections  and  recesses 
on  the  line  of  the  outer  wall,  by  a  horizontal  line  of  marble  work  separating 
the  first  story  from  those  above,  by  a  large  main  entrance  in  the  middle, 
by  the  cornice,  and  by  the  dome  of  the  observatory  above.  Though  simple 
in  design,  and  constructed  in  an  economical  manner,  the  building  presents 
externally  quite  an  ornamented  appearance. 

The  observatory  is  built  upon  two  piers  of  solid  masonry.  These  piers 
stand  isolated  from  all  the  rest  of  the  structure,  being  inclosed  within  the 
walls  on  each  side  of  the  front  entrance.  They  are  sixteen  feet  wide  by 
two  and  a  half  feet  thick,  and  extend  upwards,  without  material  change, 
from  below  the  foundation  to  the  top  of  the  third  story.  They  are  con¬ 
nected  by  iron  girders,  and  on  these  girders  the  instruments  rest.  The 
dome  of  the  observatory  rests  upon  the  other  walls  of  the  building,  and 
has  no  connection  with  the  piers  that  are  used  to  support  the  instruments. 
The  height  of  the  floor  of  the  observatory  above  the  level  of  the  pavement 
is  eighty-two  feet. 

FIRST  FLOOR. 

b.  Hot  air  flues. 

c.  Ventilating  flues. 

f.  Stairs. 

g.  Tower  walls. 

h.  Book  cases. 

Throughout  the  build¬ 
ing,  careful  provision 
has  been  made  for  light. 

The  windows  are  all 
large,  and  are  as  closely 
placed  as  a  due  regard 
to  the  strength  of  the  walls  would  permit.  Four  out  of  six  of  the  class¬ 
rooms  on  each  floor,  are  corner  rooms,  admitting  light  from  two  sides.  The 
large  lecture  room  on  the  first  floor,  is  lighted  on  three  sides. 

There  are  two  main  stairways,  one  at  each  end  of  the  large  hall.  That 
in  front  runs  in  a  well,  from  the  first  floor  to  the  arch  of  the  observatory. 
That  in  the  rear  likewise  runs  in  a  well  from  the  first  floor  to  the  third. 
18 


138 


SCHOOL  A U C  H 1  TEC TOR E . 


The  building  has  also  a  double  flight  of  stairs  in  the  rear,  connecting  the 
main  hall  with  the  basement,  a  double  flight  of  outside  stairs  into  the  base¬ 
ment  from  each  end  of  the  building,  and  a  small  stairway  connecting  the 
chemical  laboratory  with  the  class-room  above.  The  main  stairways  are 
all  six  feet  wide,  each  stair  having  a  rise  of  seven,  and  a  tread  of  twelve 
inches.  The  door  into  the  main  entrance  in  front,  is  a  folding  door,  eight 
feet  wide  and  eighteen  feet  high.  That  in  the  rear  is  also  folding,  eight 
feet  wide  and  fourteen  high.  The  main  entrance  into  the  lecture  room  is 
likewise  a  double  door,  seven  feet  wide.  The  class-rooms  are  all  severally 
connected  by  doors  with  each  other,  as  well  as  with  the  main  hall.  These 
doors  are  all  three  and  a  half  feet  wide.  The  building  thus  has  admirable 
facilities  for  the  movements  of  the  classes,  as  well  as  for  being  instantly 
cleared  in  case  of  panic. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  FLOORS. 

b.  Hot  air  flues. 

c.  Ventilating  flues. 

/.  Stairs. 
g.  Tower  walls. 

The  general  plan  of  the 
building  is  exceeding  sim- 
pie.  It  is  in  shape  an  ob¬ 
long  parallelogram,  front¬ 
ing  lengthwise  on  Broad 
street,  being  one  hundred 
feet  long  by  seventy  deep. 
There  are  three  stories  besides  the  basement.  The  plan  in  each  story  is 
nearly  the  same.  A  hall,  sixteen  feet  wide,  runs  east  and  west,  dividing  the 
building  on  each  floor  into  two  equal  parts  ;  these  parts  are  again  severally 
sub-divided  by  walls  running  north  and  south,  into  three  rooms  averaging 
thirty-eight  feet  by  twenty-two.  This  gives  six  rooms  on  a  floor,  except 
on  the  first  floor,  where  the  whole  of  the  north  side  is  reserved  for  a  lec¬ 
ture  room.  The  lecture  room  on  the  first  floor  is  sixty-eight  feet  long  by 
thirty-eight  feet  wide,  and  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  capable  of  seating  six 
hundred  persons. 

The  height  of  the  several  stories,  in  the  clear  both  of  the  floor  and  ceil¬ 
ing,  is  as  follows:  the  basement  story  ten  feet;  the  first  story  twenty  feet 
three  inches ;  the  second  story  sixteen  feet  six  inches ;  the  third  story  six¬ 
teen  feet.  The  basement  in  front  is  five  feet  three  inches  above  the  level 
of  the  curb-stone ;  and,  as  the  lot  descends  considerably  in  the  rear,  the 
basement  is,  on  an  average,  more  than  one  half  above  ground.  It  is  di¬ 
vided  into  six  rooms,  with  a  transverse  hall,  on  the  same  plan  as  the  stories 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


139 


above,  the  rooms  being  intended  for  a  chemical  laboratory,  clothes-room, 
storage,  &c. 

BASEMENT. 

aaaa.  Furnaces. 
dddd.  Area. 
ec.  Cellar  stairs. 
gg.  Tower  walls. 
klckk.  Coal  vaults. 

In  regard  to  the 
important  matter 
of  heating  and  ven¬ 
tilation,  two  meth¬ 
ods  engaged  the 
attention  of  the 
Controllers.  The 

first  was  to  generate  all  the  heat  in  one  large  chamber  in  the  centre,  and 
send  it  thence,  north  and  south,  to  the  ends  of  the  building.  The  objection 
to  this  plan  was  the  difficulty  of  producing,  in  connection  with  it,  a  proper 
ventilation.  To  secure  good  ventilation  in  an  apartment,  it  is  necessary  to 
establish  a  current  through  it.  The  air  must  be  brought  in  at  one  end  and 
carried  out  at  the  other  end.  The  ventiducts  for  carrying  off  the  air,  after 
it  has  been  used,  must  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  opposite  to  the  warm  flues 
by  which  the  pure  air  is  introduced ;  consequently,  if  the  hot  air  chamber 
were  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  the  ventiducts  would  have  to  be 
in  the  extreme  ends.  But  the  end  walls,  in  a  building  standing  apart  from 
others,  and  entirely  exposed  to  the  external  atmosphere,  are  naturally  colder 
than  those  in  the  centre ;  they  would  consequently  chill  the  ventiducts,  and 
thereby  greatly  impair  their  efficiency  in  carrying  off  the  foul  air. 

Besides  this,  in  order  that  the  ventiducts  may  be  perfectly  reliable  in  all 
weathers,  it  is  necessary  that  some  artificial  means  should  be  used  for  in¬ 
creasing  the  current  by  rarifying  the  air  within  them.  This  is  ordinarily 
done  by  introducing  within  the  ventiduct,  a  jet  of  burning  gas,  or  a  small 
stove.  The  trouble  and  expense  of  such  an  apparatus  are  greatly  increased 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  places  where  it  must  be  applied.  It  was, 
therefore,  very  desirable,  that  the  ventiducts  should  be  all  brought  together 
into  one  general  tube,  before  going  out  of  the  roof.  One  good  fire  main¬ 
tained  within  it  would  then  suffice  for  the  whole  building.  But  this  ar¬ 
rangement  would  be  impracticable,  if  the  warm  air  flues  were  to  radiate 
from  the  centre,  and  the  ventiducts  be  placed  at  the  extremities. 

It  was,  therefore,  determined  to  take  the  other  method,  namely  :  to  cen¬ 
tralize  the  ventilating  apparatus  and  generate  the  heat  at  the  extremities. 
This  is  done  by  four  of  the  largest  size  furnaces,  two  being  placed  at  each 


140 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


end  of  the  building,  and  the  heat  sent  inwards  towards  the  centre.  This 
is  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  hot  air  flues,  which  are  all  placed  in 
the  north  and  south  walls  of  the  several  apartments.  The  ventiducts 
being  at  the  opposite  ends  of  the  apartments,  all  occur  in  the  two  that  line 
the  central  hall,  and  are  all  brought  together  in  two  tire  proof  apartments 
in  the  loft,  seven  feet  square,  known  as  ventilating  chambers.  In  each  of 
these  is  placed  a  large  coal  stove,  and  from  the  top  extends  a  large  cylin¬ 
drical  exit  tube,  surmounted  by  an  Emerson  ventilating  cap.  By  means 
of  the  stove  in  the  ventilating  chamber,  a  large  amount  of  heat  may  be 
generated,  and  an  impetus  may  be  given  to  the  ascending  current,  to  any 
extent  that  is  desired. 

This  part  of  the  arrangement  is  deemed  especially  important.  In  clear, 
cold  weather,  when  the  furnaces  are  in  action,  and  a  current  of  warm  air 
is  constantly  setting  into  one  extremity  of  an  apartment,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  establish  and  maintain  an  ascending  exit  current  from  the  other  end. 
The  air  is  forced  into  the  ventiduct  by  the  constant  pressure  from  the  other 
end.  Moreover,  it  enters  the  ventiduct  already  warmer  than  the  external 
air.  The  ventiduct  itself  becomes  warmed  ;  and  so  the  current,  once  estab¬ 
lished,  perpetuates  itself.  But  when  the  furnaces  are  not  in  operation, 
nothing  of  this  sort  takes  place.  And  yet,  this  occurs  precisely  in  those 
parts  of  the  year,  when  ventilation  in  a  School-room  is  most  needed,  viz :  in 
moderate  weather,  when  it  is  not  warm  enough  to  open  the  doors  and  win¬ 
dows,  and  yet  not  cold  enough  to  maintain  a  tire.  At  such  times,  the  stove 
in  the  loft,  acting  directly  and  powerfully  upon  the  ventiduct,  will  at  all 
times  create  an  ascending  current,  sucking  the  foul  air  up,  as  it  were,  from 
the  several  apartments,  and  thereby  causing  fresh  air  to  enter  from  the 
other  extremities.  The  position  of  the  windows,  directly  opposite  the  ven¬ 
tiducts,  gives  a  special  facility  for  this  purpose,  when  the  furnaces  are  not 
in  action.  The  windows,  at  such  times,  take  the  place  of  the  warm  air 
flues  in  supplying  a  stream  of  fresh  air. 

The  following  additional  particulars  may  be  mentioned  in  regard  to  the 
apparatus  for  heating  and  ventilation.  The  flues  are  all  made  large,  both 
those  for  the  admission,  and  those  for  the  exit  of  the  air.  In  the  class¬ 
rooms,  which  are  thirty-eight  feet  by  twenty-two,  the  warm  air  flues  aver¬ 
age  one  and  one-sixth  square  feet,  aud  the  ventiducts  two  and  one-third 
square  feet.  In  all  the  rooms  the  warm  air  is  introduced  at  the  bottom  of 
the  apartment,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  level  of  the  floor;  and  the  ordinary 
opening  for  the  escape  of  the  foul  air  is  also  on  a  level  with  the  floor  at  the 
opposite  extremity,  so  as  to  sweep  constantly  the  lower  stratum  of  air,  in 
which  the  Pupil  is  immersed.  The  ventiducts  are  also  supplied  with 
openings  at  the  ceiling,  to  be  used,  not  in  ordinary 7  but  whenever  needed, 
to  get  rid  of  the  excessive  heat. 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  CIT?  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


14:1 


In  reckoning  the  advantages  of  the  building,  in  respect  to  pure  air,  espe¬ 
cial  emphasis  should  be  given  to  the  commendable  height  of  the  ceilings. 
Each  apartment  has  a  large  volume  of  air  at  its  disposal,  in  proportion  to 
the  area  of  its  floor ;  and  it  is  obvious,  that  the  air  of  a  room  eight  or  ten 
feet  high,  is  much  more  rapidly  vitiated  than  that  of  one  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  high.  The  average  proportion  of  atmosphere  allowed  to  each  Pupil  is 
three  hundred  and  forty-three  cubic  feet,  —  equal  to  an  area  of  seven  feet 
square  in  a  room  whose  ceiling  is  only  seven  feet  high. 


The  High  School  is  supported  by  the  city  at  an  annual  expense  of  about 
twenty  thousand  dollars.  It  has  a  liberal  course  of  study,  running  through 
four  years,  differing  somewhat  from  a  college  course,  but  equivalent  to  it, 
and  those  students  who  complete  the  course  receive  regularly  the  degrees 
of  Bachelor  and  Master  of  Arts,  a  charter  to  this  effect  having  been  granted 
by  the  Legislature,  The  success  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School  contri¬ 
buted  largely  to  the  establishment  of  the  New  York  Free  Academy,  an  in¬ 
stitution  of  similar  character,  and  on  a  still  more  liberal  footing.  Both  of 
these  noble  institutions,  as  well  as  all  the  subordinate  subsidiary  schools  by 
which  they  are  fed,  are  absolutely  and  entirely  free,  the  only  test  and  the 
only  chance  of  admission  being  the  individual  merit  of  the  applicant. 

The  primary  and  main  end  of  the  Pligh  School  was  to  elevate  the  whole 
system  with  which  it  is  connected.  It  has  accomplished  in  this  respect  all 
that  was  expected  of  it.  Both  the  Pupils  and  the  Teachers  of  the  lower 
Schools  have  been  stimulated  to  an  extraordinary  degree  of  activity,  and  their 
popularity  has  kept  pace  with  their  progress.  When  the  High  School  was 
first  projected,  there  were  only  about  seven  or  eight  thousand  Pupils  in  the 
public  Schools  of  Philadelphia,  although  the  system  had  been  in  operation 
for  nearly  twenty  years ;  there  are  now  more  than  fifty-three  thousand  in 
daily  attendance.  When  the  High  School  was  first  opened,  candidates  went 
to  the  lower  Schools  the  term  required,  only  in  obedience  to  an  odious  re¬ 
striction  of  law.  Now  these  lower  Schools  themselves  have  become  attrac¬ 
tive  places  of  education,  and  some  of  the  richest  and  most  aristocratic  peo¬ 
ple  of  the  city  send  their  children  there,  not  merely  as  a  stepping  stone 
to  the  High  School,  but  because  those  Schools  offer  the  best  training  which 
the  city  affords  for  a  common  English  education. 


142 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


FRONTISPIECE. 


CLASS  II  — No.  6. 

The  plate  prepared  by  the  artist  as  an  ornamental  Frontispiece,  repre¬ 
sents  a  building  which  would  properly  be  No.  6,  Class  II,  if  in  its  proper 
place  in  this  Manual.  The  plan  will  suit  either  for  two  separate  primary 
Schools,  or  for  a  secondary  School  in  a  small  village,  or  in  a  densely  peo¬ 
pled  rural  district.  It  shows  seats  for  only  ninety-six  Pupils,  but  has  ample 
space  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

If  used  as  a  secondary  School,  one  of  the  main  apartments  may  be  de¬ 
voted  to  males  and  the  other  to  females  ;  or,  a  still  better  arrangement  will 
be,  to  form  the  Pupils  into  two  divisions,  without  regard  to  sex,  but  with 
sole  reference  to  standing  in  studies,  and  to  place  one  division  in  each  room. 

The  large  provision  of  class-rooms  seems  to  indicate  that  there  shall  be 
no  recitations  in  the  main  study  rooms.  According  to  this  system,  four 
Teachers  will  be  needed  for  the  full  number  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  Pupils  ;  one  in  each  class-room,  hearing  recitations,  and  one  in  each 
study  room  keeping  order  and  preparing  classes.  The  latter  two  might  be 
young  or  assistant  Teachers,  at  a  small  salary,  and  under  instruction  for 
the  profession  of  teaching.  Thus  arranged,  a  more  ample  provision  for  in¬ 
struction,  or  better  accommodations  for  both  Pupils  and  Teachers,  can 
hardly  be  imagined,  than  this  building  presents. 

SPECIFICATION. 

The  building  is  intended  to  be  of  smooth  brick  work  on  the  outer  surface, 
with  the  projections  of  the  piers,  pilasters  and  architraves  of  the  same 
material.  The  dimensions  are  eighty  feet  on  the  front  and  twenty-eight 
feet  across  the  end.  The  elevation  of  the  first  floor  is  two  feet  six  inches  ; 
the  height  of  the  story  sixteen  feet  in  the  clear,  and  the  pitch  of  roof  six 
feet. 

PLAN  OF  FRONTISPIECE. 

a.  Girls’ entrance  and  clothes 
room. 

a.  Boys’  entrance  and  clothes 
room. 

bb.  Teachers’  desks. 
cc.  Class-rooms. 

d.  Passages  2  feet  6  inches. 

e.  Seats  for  two  Pupils. 
ff.  Flues. 


FRONTISPIECE. 


143 


For  the  arrangement  of  the  building  and  manner  of  work,  reference  will 

go  J 

be  had  to  the  plans  and  the  following  specifications. 

EXCAVATION. 

Excavations  will  be  made  for  a  cellar  seven  feet  in  the  clear,  and  for  a 
door  way  ;  with  trenches  of  sufficient  depth  for  a  solid  foundation. 

MASONRY,  &c. 

The  walls  of  the  cellar  will  be  of  good  quarry  building  stone.  The  outer 
stone  walls,  up  to  the  level  of  the  ground,  will  be  sixteen  inches  thick.  The 
division  walls  will  be  the  same,  built  up  to  receive  the  joists. 

The  brick  walls  will  be  fifteen  inches  at  the  base  and  in  the  corner  piers, 
and  in  the  recesses  eleven  inches,  being  a  nine  inch  wall,  spread  two  inches 
in  the  middle,  with  the  surfaces  bonded  together  alternately  with  headers. 

The  pilasters  around  the  doors  and  windows  will  project  two  inches  from 
the  face  of  the  wall ;  flues  will  be  made  in  the  walls  for  smoke  and  venti¬ 
lation,  and  all  other  preparations  requisite  for  heating  with  a  furnace. 

The  division  walls  across  the  building  will  be  of  brick,  nine  inches  thick. 
The  brick  on  the  exterior  will  be  of  the  best  dark  stretchers,  smoothly 
laid  and  joints  neatly  struck.  The  base  around  the  building  will  be  capped 
with  a  moulded  brick ;  openings  will  be  made  to  the  cellar  under  each  win¬ 
dow  for  light  and  air,  and  neat  iron  guards  secured  in  the  same. 

Cut  stone  sills  will  be  required  for  the  outside  doors  and  windows.  The 
inside  of  the  walls  and  ceilings  will  be  plastered  with  two  coats  of  brown 
mortar,  and  one  of  white  finish.  The  mortar  for  the  same  to  be  made  of 
clean  sharp  sand  and  wood  burnt  lime. 

CARPENTER  WORK  AND  MATERIALS. 

The  flooring  joists  will  be  three  by  twelve  inches,  placed  sixteen  inches 
between  centre,  and  well  secured  with  cross  bridging  through  the  centre  of 
each  length.  Those  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  building  will  bear  upon  a 
six  by  twelve  inch  girder,  supported  by  brick  piers  in  the  cellar.  The 
roof  will  be  supported  by  a  trussed  ridge  pole  or  girder,  running  lengthwise 
and  resting  on  the  division  walls  crossing  the  building.  The  rafters  will 
bear  upon  the  wall  plate  and  ridge  pole,  and  be  placed  two  feet  between 
centres.  The  hip  and  valley  rafters  will  be  three  by  ten  inches.  Jack 
rafters  three  by  five  inches.  The  eave  and  cupolas  will  be  made  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  plate  No.  12,  “  Architectural  Details.”  The  cupolas  are  intend¬ 
ed  for  ventilators,  and  to  be  connected  with  the  ventiducts  under  the  roof. 
The  ceiling  joists  will  be  two  by  eight  inches,  sixteen  inches  between  cen¬ 
tres.  The  rafters  will  be  sheathed  in  with  boards  of  uniform  thickness, 
and  together  with  the  cupolas  prepared  for  covering  with  tin.  The  win¬ 
dows  will  all  be  made  plank  face  or  casing,  sash  all  one  and  a  half  inches 
thick,  double  hung  with  patent  cord,  axle  pulleys  and  weights.  Inside 


144 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


rolling  blinds,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  will  be  made  in  four  folds,  hung 
and  secured  in  the  usual  manner  without  boxes.  The  outside  door  frames 
will  be  beaded  casings  with  plain  hanging  stiles.  The  doors  one  and  three 
quarter  inches  thick,  in  pairs,  and  hung  with  suitable  sized  butts,  and  secured 
with  flush  bolts  and  six  inch  mortice  locks.  The  floors  will  be  of  yellow 
pine  or  ash,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  planed  and  grooved,  well  nailed 
to  the  joists,  and  joints  shot.  Partitions  not  of  brick  will  be  of  three  by  four 
inch  scantling.  The  walls  of  the  School-rooms  will  be  wainscoted  to  the 
height  of  three  feet,  and  capped  on  a  line  with  the  window  sills.  The 
jamb  casings  of  the  windows  will  be  inch  thick,  and  beaded  on  the  edge  to 
receive  the  plastering.  The  jamb  casings  of  the  doors  will  be  one  and  a 
half  inches  thick  and  rebated.  The  dressings  of  the  inside  doors  will  be  a 
moulding  four  inches  wide.  The  doors  will  be  one  a  half  inches  thick, 
made  in  six  panels  and  moulded,  hung  with  suitable  sized  butts  and  secured 
with  three  and  a  half  inch  mortice  locks.  The  outside  steps  will  be  of  wood  ; 
a  set  of  outside  cellar  door-clieeks,  sill  and  doors,  will  be  made  and  hung, 
and  strong  steps  be  made  to  lead  to  the  cellar. 

Platforms  for  the  Teachers’  desks  will  be  made  where  shown  in  the 
ground  plan ;  one  hundred  square  feet  of  black-board,  or  other  dark  surface 
to  be  approved  by  the  Directors,  will  be  put  up  in  each  of  the  two  School¬ 
rooms  and  the  two  class-rooms ;  map  rails  will  be  put  up  in  both,  and  pin 
rails  in  the  clothes-rooms,  with  a  sufficient  number  of  the  most  approved 
wardrobe  hooks  on  the  latter,  as  directed  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

TIN  ROOFING. 

The  roof  will  be  overlaid  with  the  best  quality  cross  leaded  roofing  tin, 
painted  two  coats  on  the  upper  side,  the  first  coat  of  red  lead. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

All  the  wood  work  usually  painted,  will  have  three  coats  of  pure  white 
lead  and  linseed  oil,  and  be  finished  in  such  tints  of  plain  colors  as  directed. 
The  sash  will  lie  glazed  with  the  best  American  glass,  well  bedded,  sprigged 
and  puttied. 

PRIVY  AND  FENCING. 

The  privy  and  fencing  will  be  according  to  the  specification  of  No.  2, 
Class  III. 

MEMORANDUM. 

All  the  materials  are  to  be  of  the  best  quality  for  the  different  kinds  of 
work,  and  the  workmanship  to  be  done  in  a  complete  and  substantial  man¬ 
ner,  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  this  specification. 

ESTIMATE. 

The  cost  of  this  building  will  be  about  three  thousand  dollars. 


THE  PRIVY. 


145 


THE  PRIVY. 


It  is  now  universally  admitted  that  education  is  not  confined  to  the  cul¬ 
ture  of  the  intellect,  but  that  the  preservation  of  health,  the  formation  of 
correct  habits  and  the  inculcation  of  sound  morality,  are  also  embraced  in 
the  term.  Cleanliness  of  person,  decency  of  conduct  and  propriety  of  man¬ 
ners,  are  as  essential  to  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  the  social  state,  as  a 
cultivated  intellect  and  a  well  ordered  store  of  practical  knowledge  are  to 
individual  success.  It  may  even  be  asserted,  that  the  number  of  persons 
who  make  their  way  in  the  world  by  the  force  of  physical  health,  easiness 
of  manner  and  sound  morals,  though  undistinguished  by  great  talent  or  en¬ 
larged  acquirement,  is  at  least  as  great  as  that  of  those  who  rely  solely  on  the 
latter.  Be  this  as  it  may  with  respect  to  the  individual,  certain  it  is,  that 
when  regarded  in  their  relation  to  society,  those  decencies,  which  have  been 
aptly  denominated  “  the  minor  morals,”  rise  at  once  into  importance,  and 
demand  the  utmost  care  at  the  hands  of  those  to  whom  the  training  of  the 
youth  of  a  community  is  entrusted.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  work  of  this  kind 
would  be  incomplete,  if  the  subject  now  proposed  were  wholly  omitted. 

When  attention  is  turned  directly  to  the  point,  no  argument  is  needed  to 
show  the  intimate  connection  which  exists  between  the  common  decencies 
of  life  and  a  high  state  of  civilization.  Yet  the  practice  of  many,  who 
have  charge  of  the  Common  School-houses,  would  seem  to  indicate,  either 
that  they  have  never  fully  considered  the  importance  of  this  subject,  or 
that  they  disregard,  in  respect  to  the  Schools  of  their  children,  those  very 
proprieties  which  they  are  so  careful  to  provide  for,  at  home,  in  reference  to 
themselves.  In  no  other  way  can  the  offensive  condition  of  the  grounds 
around  so  many  School-houses  be  accounted  for ;  and  it  is  time  that  atten¬ 
tion  should  be  plainly  called  to  this  matter. 

Injury  to  the  bodily  health  of  the  young  from  unwholesome  effluvia,  is 
the  smallest  portion  of  this  evil.  The  indecency  of  the  practice  cannot  be 
long  continued  without  generating  habits,  whose  very  existence  is  proof  of 
the  absence  of  that  sense  of  delicacy  and  of  those  finer  feelings,  which  are 
indispensable  to  a  high  and  correct  moral  character.  When  the  sense  of 
shame  for  doing  that  which  is  indecent  is  eradicated,  one,  and  by  no  means 
the  weakest,  of  the  barriers  against  committing  that  which  is  dishonest, 
has  also  been  removed. 

19 


I4G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Nor  is  the  total  neglect  to  make  suitable  arrangements  the  only  or  the 
chief  evil,  in  this  direction.  The  loathsome  condition  in  which  these 
buildings  are  often  found,  is  equally  blame-worthy,  and  if  possible,  more 
prejudicial  to  health  than  their  entire  absence.  Their  care  is  as  indis¬ 
pensable  as  their  erection.  Children  require  as  constant  oversight  in  the 
formation  of  this,  as  of  any  other  habit,  and  the  teacher  or  the  director 
who  thinks  it  beneath  his  dignity  to  inspect,  regularly  and  closely,  all  the 
out-houses  of  the  School,  entertains  strange  vieAVs  of  true  dignity  of  char¬ 
acter,  and  omits  a  very  important  duty. 

Though  the  importance  and  obligation  of  this  duty  are  thus  insisted  on, 
the  difficulty  of  successfully  performing  it  is  fully  admitted.  Hence,  every 
proper  expedient  for  effecting  the  object  should  be  adopted,  and  the  most 
careful  arrangements  should  be  made  in  the  first  plan  of  the  School  premises. 

The  following  principles  would  seem  to  be  applicable :  1.  These  build¬ 
ings  should  always  be  so  located  as  to  be,  as  much  as  possible,  out  of  view, 
without  removing  them  to  an  inconvenient  distance.  2.  Their  outward  ap¬ 
pearance  should  not  be  such  as  to  invite  injury,  but  should  be  so  neat  and 
agreeable  as  to  claim  for  them  care  and  protection.  3.  Their  form  and  ar¬ 
rangement  should  be  calculated  to  prevent  them,  as  much  as  possible,  from 
becoming  offensive  to  the  senses  or  injurious  to  health. 

1.  In  most  cases  the  best  location  will  be  on  the  extreme  rear  of  the 
School  lot,  and  within  four  or  five  feet  of  the  centre  of  the  back  fence.  If 
thus  placed,  with  the  entrance  doors  towards  the  back  fence,  as  much  of 
privacy  as  possible  will  be  secured,  and  the  cost  of  a  screen  in  front  will  be 
saved.  This  position  will  also  suit  the  division  of  the  building  into  sepa¬ 
rate  apartments  for  the  sexes,  which  separation  may  be  readily  and  effectu¬ 
al^  made  by  extending  the  dividing  fence  between  the  boys’  and  girls’ 
play-grounds,  from  the  centre  of  the  back  wall  of  the  School-house  to  the 
centre  of  the  out-house  in  question,  with  a  similar  division  of  the  space  be¬ 
tween  the  latter  building  and  the  back  fence.  Such  a  location  will  proba¬ 
bly  be  found  as  unobtrusive,  yet  as  convenient,  as  any  that  can  be  selected. 

2.  The  outward  appearance  of  the  building  should  be  as  neat  and  orna¬ 
mental  as  the  circumstances  of  the  cases  will  admit.  It  is  poor  economy 
as  well  as  wretched  taste,  to  waste  the  funds  of  the  district  on  those  high, 
narrow,  board  watch-boxes,  placed  over  an  unwalled  well  of  slight  depth, 
which  the  first  storm  overturns,  and  whose  open  joints  and  exposed  door  — 
if  door  they  have  —  afford  little  shelter  and  less  privacy  while  they  do 
stand. 

These  buildings  should  always  be  in  keeping  with  the  architecture  of  the 
School-house.  If  possible  they  should  be  of  the  same  material  and  in  the 
same  style ;  neatly  and  substantially  finished,  and  well  painted  or  lime- 
washed  ;  and  altogether  such,  in  outward  appearance,  as  neither  to  disgrace 


THE  PRIVY. 


147 


the  locality  nor  invite  injury.  Attention  to  these  particulars  will  probably 
be  found  to  be  not  only  good  taste  but  true  economy.  If,  too,  the  rose  or 
other  climbing  flower,  be  made  to  add  to  its  beauty  and  its  concealment 
to  the  structure,  the  mischievous  hands  of  childhood  will  be  less  apt  to  in¬ 
flict  injury,  and  an  unsightly  object  may  be  converted  into  an  ornament. 

3.  As  to  general  form  and  construction,  a  building  divided  into  as  many 
apartments  as  it  has  seats,  is  probably  the  best.  Each  apartment  need  not 
be  wider  than  two  and  a  half  feet,  by  five  feet  in  length  or  depth.  A  build¬ 
ing  with  four  divisions  would  thus  be  five  by  ten  feet  in  dimensions.  The 
well  should  always  be  deep  and  of  a  round  or  oval  shape,  according  to  cir¬ 
cumstances.  A  square  or  oblong  well  is  liable  to  cave  in ;  whereas  the 
round  or  oval  arrangement  of  the  stone  or  brick  lining  wall,  presents  the 
resistance  of  an  arch  to  the  outside  pressure. 

If  the  material  of  the  building  be  wood,  none  of  the  inside  work  should 
be  planed,  except  the  seat,  and  it  should  be  all  painted  or  lime-washed  with 
some  dark  color.  If  stone  or  brick  be  used,  the  inside  should  be  finished 
with  a  hard  rough  coat  of  plaster,  and  lime-washed  with  a  dark  color ;  the 
object  in  both  cases  being  to  prevent  wrriting  or  marking  on  the  walls. 

The  size  of  the  building  will,  of  course,  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  School,  and  no  exact  rule  can  be  laid  down  on  this  point.  No  School 
for  both  sexes  should,  however,  have  one  with  less  than  two  apartments,  and 
probably  few  Schools  will  require  one  with  more  than  six. 

The  two  great  objects  to  be  effected  by  the  proper  arrangement  and 
care  of  this  building,  are  ventilation  and  cleanliness. 

To  secure  constant  and  free  ventilation,  one  of  the  best  expedients  proba¬ 
bly  is,  to  have  all  the  inside  partitions  hollow,  and  so  constructed  as  to 
form  direct  and  large  passages  for  the  effluvium  from  the  well  to  the  loft; 
the  sides  of  the  partitions  being  either  composed  of  grooved  boards  or  of  lath 
and  plaster;  but  boards  are  the  best,  being  less  liable  to  injury.  In  each 
gable  end  of  the  loft,  there  should  be  an  open  slat  window,  and  also  a  small 
cupola  on  the  roof  with  similar  sides.  Such  an  arrangement  as  this,  with 
close  covers  to  the  seats,  will  effectually  cause  all  effluvia  to  rise  and  pass 
off,  at  such  a  height  as  to  prevent  injury  or  unpleasantness. 

In  the  absence  of  hollow  partitions  open  at  bottom  and  top,  a  flue  from 
the  well  through  the  loft  to  the  top  of  the  roof,  is  frequently  inserted.  Tibs, 
when  of  sufficient  capacity  and  properly  arranged,  is  found  to  answer  a  good 
purpose. 

Many  expedients  have  been  tried  to  prevent  the  defilement  of  the  seats. 
A  very  effectual  one  is  to  put  a  hinged  cover  to  each,  with  a  brace  or 
board  so  fixed,  firmly,  at  the  back  of  the  cover,  as  to  prevent  it  from  opening 
beyond  an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees  with  the  level  of  the  seat.  This 
cover  should  also  be  so  much  wider  than  the  seat  —  say  six  or  eight  inches  — - 


148 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


as  to  extend,  when  raised,  to  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  front  edge  of  the 
seat.  This  arrangement  will  effect  the  double  object,  of  rendering  it  im¬ 
possible  to  stand  on  the  seat,  and  of  causing  the  seat  to  be  closed  when  not 
in  use  —  the  cover,  from  its  position,  always  falling  by  its  own  weight. 

There  should  be  a  good  lock  and  key  to  each  apartment,  and  every  Pupil 
required  to  report  any  act  of  carelessness  found  to  have  been  committed. 
The  locking  of  the  building  is  necessary  for  the  additional  reason,  that  most 
School  property  is  left  unprotected  during  at  least  sixteen  out  of  the  twenty- 
four  hours ;  and  therefore  it  requires  all  the  safe-guards  that  can  be  thrown 
round  it. 

A  properly  constructed  urinal  should  be  attached  to  the  boys’  privy.  It 
should  be  placed  in  the  most  retired  corner  of  the  space  between  the  build¬ 
ing  and  the  back  fence,  and  be  connected  with  the  well.  One  of  cast  iron 
will  be  the  most  durable  and  can  be  procured  at  little  cost ;  but  if  wood 
be  used,  it  will  last  several  years.  This  arrangement  will  not  only  pre¬ 
vent  all  unpleasantness  to  the  senses,  but  conduce  to  the  formation  of  habits 
of  propriety  and  decency. 

These  are  apparently  small  matters,  and  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  them 
in  fitting  language ;  but  their  proper  observance  will  prove  greatly  promo¬ 
tive  of  the  moral  improvement  of  the  School.  The  competent  Teacher  will 
know  how  to  enforce  them,  and  will  find  the  result  of  his  efforts  beneficial 
in  every  respect. 

In  some  few  Schools  the  practice  prevails  of  refusing  Pupils  permission 
to  go  out,  except  during  intermission,  or  at  certain  stated  times.  No  rule 
could  be  more  reprehensible  than  this.  It  has  often  caused  unpleasant 
consequences,  and  may  inflict  serious  injury  on  the  health  of  the  child.  It 
is  admitted  that  some  Pupils  abuse  the  privilege  to  leave  the  School-room ; 
but  the  competent  and  watchful  Teacher  will,  in  most  cases,  soon  detect 
such  practices,  and  know  how  to  apply  the  proper  correction.  Still,  if  he 
cannot,  it  is  the  height  of  oppression  to  punish  and  incur  the  risk  of  injuring 
a  whole  School,  on  account  of  the  misdeeds  of  a  few. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS. 


149 


ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS. 


For  the  purpose  of  saving  space  and  avoiding  constant  repetition,  the 
Architects  have  grouped,  in  the  following  plates,  such  parts  of  the  details 
of  the  foregoing  structures,  as  could  be  thus  most  readily  exhibited  to  the 
eye.  In  the  various  specifications,  these  plates  have  been  referred  to  by 
their  proper  numbers ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  plates,  lettered  references  will 
be  found,  indicating  the  portion  of  each  which  is  to  be  taken  as  part  of  the 
specification  connected  with  it.  Thus,  so  much  of  each  plate  as  relates  to 
it,  becomes  a  part  of  the  proper  specification. 


A.  Eave  and  cornice,  Nos.  1  and  2,  first  class,  and 

No.  4,  second  class. 

B.  Eave  and  cornice,  Nos.  3  and  5,  first  class. 

C.  Eave  and  cornice,  No.  4,  first  class. 

D.  Column,  No.  2,  second  class. 

E.  Door  frame,  Nos.  1  and  2,  first  class. 


F.  Cornice  of  porch,  No.  4,  first  class. 

G.  Bracket  under  barge,  No.  5,  first  class. 

H.  Porch  eave,  Nos.  3  and  5,  first  class. 

I.  Bracket  and  roof  over  door  and  window,  No.  5, 

first  class. 

K.  Side  view  of  roof  over  door  and  window  No.  5. 
first  class. 


150 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


A.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  6,  first  class,  and  No.  4,  C.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  G,  first  class,  and  No.  4, 
second  class.  second  class. 


B.  Eave  and  cornice,  Nos.  6  and  7,  first  class,  D.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  7,  first  class, 
and  2  and  3,  second.  E.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  7,  first  class. 


B.  Large  gable  window,  No.  2,  second  class.  E.  Twin  window,  No.  4,  second  class. 

C.  Barge  and  window  bracket,  No.  2,  second  class,  and  penthouse  bracket  over  door,  No.  6,  first  class. 
F.  Side  view  of  twin  window,  No.  4,  second  class. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS. 


151 


A.  Top  of  bell  turret,  No.  3,  second  class. 
C.  Base  of  bell  turret,  No.  3,  second  class. 
F.  Base  of  bell  turret.  No.  5,  second  class. 


A.  Eave  and  cornice,  No.  1,  third  class. 

B.  Front  door  head,  No.  1,  third  class. 

C.  Side  view  door  head,  No.  1,  third  class. 

D.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  3,  third  class. 


B.  Top  of  bell  turret,  No.  5,  second  class. 
D.  Large  window,  No.  3,  second  class. 


E.  Bracket  and  cornice  of  Nos.  2,  3  and  5,  third 

class. 

F.  Centre  window,  No.  5,  third  class. 

G.  Corbels,  No.  5,  third  class. 


152 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


A.  Cupola,  No.  2,  third  class.  B.  Window  dressing,  No.  2,  third  class. 

C.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  4,  third  class.  D.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  4,  third  class. 


A.  Eave  and  cornice,  No.  3,  fourth  class. 

B.  Cupola,  No.  3,  fourth  class. 

C.  Hood  mould,  No.  7,  third  class. 

D.  Sill  and  block,  No.  7,  third  class. 


E.  Eave  and  bracket  for  No.  7,  third  class. 

F.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  7,  third  class. 

G.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  7,  third  class. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS. 


153 


A.  Eave  and  cornice,  No.  4,  third  class,  and  No.  4,  fourth  class,  and  corbel  course,  No.  4,  fourth  class. 

B.  Chimney  top,  No.  4,  fourth  class.  C.  Eave  and  cornice  of  wing  No.  4,  fourth  class. 

D.  Front  porch,  No.  2,  fourth  class.  E.  Eave  cornice  and  bracket,  No.  1,  fourth  class. 

F.  Main  eave,  No.  2,  fourth  class. 


A.  Eave,  cornice,  bracket  and  quoins,  No.  5,  fourth  class.  B.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  5,  fourth  class. 

C.  Eave  and  cornice  of  cupola,  No.  5,  fourth  class. 

20 


154 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


A.  Eave,  cornice,  medallions  and  quoins,  No.  8,  fourth  class. 

B.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  8,  fourth  class.  C.  Eave  and  cornice  of  cupola,  No.  8,  fourth  class. 


A.  Top  of  cupola,  No.  9,  fourth  class. 

C.  Eave  and  cornice,  No.  9,  fourth  class. 


B.  Base  of  cupola,  No.  9,  fourth  class. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS. 


155 


A.  Bell  turret  of  frontispiece  building.  B.  Base  of  turret  of  frontispiece  building. 

C.  Top  of  turret  of  frontispiece  building.  D.  Eave  and  cornice  of  frontispiece  building. 

E.  Section  of  iron  post  of  sash  partitions,  showing  the  boxes  for  weights. 

F.  Girder  cut  out  to  slip  on  the  iron  post.  G.  Elevation  of  iron  post  and  bearing  of  girder. 


A.  Portico  of  building,  No.  7,  fourth  class.  B.  Base  of  column  of  building,  No.  7,  fourth  class. 

C.  Eave  and  cornice  of  main  building,  No.  7,  fourth  class. 

D,  A  date  stone. 


356 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


SCALE  OF  GROUND  PLANS, 


The  following  table  shows  the  scale  of  proportion  according  to  which  the 
plans  of  the  buildings  in  this  Manual  have  been  drawn :  The  first  column 
of  figures  under  each  class  indicating  the  number  of  the  building  in  its 
proper  class,  and  the  second  the  number  of  feet  in  the  building  to  the  inch 
in  the  plan. 

CLASS  I.  CLASS  II. 


No.  1,  twelve*  feet  to  the  inch. 

2,  twelve  feet  to  the  inch. 

3,  twelve  feet  to  the  inch. 

4,  ten  feet  to  the  inch. 

5,  twelve  feet  to  the  inch. 

6,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

7,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

CLASS  in. 

No.  1,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

•  2,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

3,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

4,  eighteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

5,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

6,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

7,  twenty-five  feet  to  the  inch. 


No.  1,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

2,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

3,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

4,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

5,  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch, 


CLASS  IV. 

No.  1,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

2,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

3,  eighteen  feet  to  the  inch. 

4,  twenty  feet  to  the  inch. 

5,  twenty-five  feet  to  the  inch. 

6,  twenty-four  feet  to  the  inch. 

7,  thirty  feet  to  the  inch. 

8,  thirty  feet  to  the  inch. 

9,  thirty-five  feet  to  the  inch. 


10,  thirty-five  feet  to  the  inch. 

Frontispiece  ground  plan  ( page  142)  —  twenty-five  feet  to  the  inch. 

The  “  Architectural  Details”  are  all  drawn  on  a  scale  of  half  an  inch  to 
the  foot. 

The  sections  of  the  one  story  buildings  in  chapters  VI  and  VII,  are  on  a 
scale  of  sixteen  feet  to  the  inch;  and  those  of  the  other  buildings  in  the 
same  chapters  are  twelve  feet  to  the  inch. 

The  class-room  plans]  in  chapter  VIII,  on  Furniture,  are  ten  feet  to  the 
inch. 

The  School-lot  plans  in  chapter  XI,  are  thirty-five  feet  to  the  inch- 


EXPLANATORY  REMARKS, 


157 


EXPLANATORY  REMARKS, 


In  reference  to  the  foregoing  plans  and  specifications  of  buildings,  it  is 
proper  to  state,  for  the  information  of  Directors,  Controllers  and  Contractors, 

I.  That  no  articles  of  School  furniture,  except  black-boards,  platforms 
and  such  others  as  are  actually  named  as  intended  to  be  embraced  in  the 
specification  or  in  others  referred  to  by  it,  are  included  in  the  estimate  of 
cost,  or  intended  to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor.  It  is  true  that  desks 
and  seats,  both  for  Pupils  and  Teachers,  are  shown  on  nearly  all  the  ground 
plans,  but  this  has  been  done  solely  to  indicate  the  architect’s  opinion  of 
the  best  plan  for  their  arrangement,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  including 
them  in  the  contract  for  building.  Still,  if  the  parties  desire  to  have  the 
furniture  included  in  the  contract  for  building,  it  can  be  done ;  but  in  that 
case,  the  number  and  kind  of  each  article  to  be  provided  by  the  contractor 
must  be  inserted  in  the  agreement.  But  the  better  plan  will  be,  to  have  a 
separate  agreement  for  the  furniture. 

II.  That  when  reference  is  made,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  from  one  spe¬ 
cification  to  another,  the  number  of  the  building  thus  referred  to  is  always 
understood  to  be  in  the  same  class  as  the  one  from  which  the  reference  is 
made,  if  the  class  is  not  expressly  named.  When  the  reference  is  to  a 
building  in  another  class,  in  such  case  both  the  number  and  class  referred 
to,  will  be  found  named. 

III.  That  no  fencing,  except  the  division  fence  which  should  separate 
most  School  lots  into  two  parts,  is  included  in  the  specifications  and  esti¬ 
mates.  The  reason  of  this  was,  that  frequently  outside  fences  either  al¬ 
ready  exist,  or  one  half  of  them  is  to  be  made  by  adjoining  owners.  When 
either  is  not  the  case,  the  whole  of  the  fencing  should  be  included  in  the 
contract  for  building.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  adding  a  few  lines  to 
the  agreement. 

IV.  That  it  was  not  thought  necessary  to  lengthen  each  specification,  by 
stating  in  it  the  period  for  the  completion  of  the  building.  A  clause  ot 
this  kind  should  always  be  inserted  in  the  agreement,  and  if  possible,  the 
work  should  all  be  completed  several  weeks  before  the  building  is  to  be  oc¬ 
cupied  ;  not  only  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  dry  and  fit  for  use  with¬ 
out  risk  to  health,  but  that  the  paint  and  plastering  may  have  time  to  dry 
and  harden,  so  as  the  better  to  resist  injury. 


158 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


V.  Since  the  publication,  in  pamphlet  form,  of  the  plans  forming  Class  I, 
in  this  Manual,  several  suggestions  have  been  made,  that  it  would  be  ad¬ 
visable  to  present  descriptions  of  still  cheaper  buildings  than  those  embraced 
in  this  class.  At  first  it  was  determined  to  add  a  series  of  the  kind  sug¬ 
gested,  but  on  more  mature  consideration  the  idea  was  abandoned.  On  ex¬ 
amination,  the  decreased  cost  was,  in  most  cases,  found  to  consist  in  the 
omission  of  some  important  part — mostly  the  cellar  and  the  chimney  — 
or  in  saving  work  and  material  by  the  erection  of  a  slight,  rough  structure. 
The  object  of  this  work  is  to  improve  the  School  Architecture  of  the  State ; 
but  if  changes  of  the  kind  alluded  to  be  found  unavoidable,  they  can  be 
effected  by  adopting  the  most  suitable  plan  in  this  work  and  then  by  omit¬ 
ting,  from  the  specification,  any  part  not  desired  to  be  retained,  or  by 
altering  the  description  of  the  work,  or  the  quality  and  dimensions  of  the 
material. 


In  explanation  of  the  fact  that  a  different  arrangement  of  the  furniture, 
&c.,  from  that  indicated  on  several  of  the  ground  plans  has  been  suggested, 
it  is  proper  to  say,  that  for  this  the  Editor  alone  is  answerable.  The  draw¬ 
ings,  plans  and  elevations,  with  all  of  the  text  after  the  word  “  specification,” 
where  it  first  occurs  in  capitals  under  each  building,  are  the  work  of  the 
Architects ;  except  in  case  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  the  matter  re¬ 
lating  to  which  was  prepared  by  Professor  Hart.  These  drawings  and  plans 
having  been  selected  by  the  proper  State  authority,  the  Editor  did  not  feel 
at  liberty  to  have  them  altered  to  suit  his  own  views ;  but  contented  him¬ 
self  with  suggesting  the  few  improvements  they  seemed  to  admit  of,  and  of 
adding  such  other  remarks  as  were  deemed  proper.  These  suggestions  and 
remarks  constitute  the  portion  of  the  descriptive  matter,  preceding  the 
word  “  specification”  under  each  number. 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


159 


VI.  ON  HEATING  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

ON  THE  HEATING  OP  SCHOOL-ROOMS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS,  WITH  PLATES  OF  STOVES, 

/  FURNACES,  Ac. 

\ 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

The  proper  heating  of  a  School-house  is  a  point  of  greater  importance 
than  is  generally  supposed.  To  procure  and  set  up  a  stove  which  shall 
draw  well  and  be  safe,  and  which  a  visiting  Director,  or  the  Teacher,  or  a 
Pupil,  may  approach  on  a  cold  day  and  at  which  he  may  speedily  warm 
himself,  is  a  matter  of  little  difficulty.  But  this  is  not  by  any  means  enough. 
The  true  object  —  short  of  which  the  purpose  is  not  effected  —  is  so  to  ar¬ 
range  the  heating  apparatus,  whatever  it  may  be,  as  to  produce  that  proper, 
equal  and  regular  temperature,  by  which  alone  the  present  comfort  of  the 
Pupils  can  be  secured,  their  disposition  and  ability  to  study  promoted,  and 
their  health  protected  against  injury. 

Persons  sitting  for  a  length  of  time  in  a  state  of  physical  inaction,  re¬ 
quire  a  higher  temperature  —  a  greater  degree  of  heat  —  than  the  same 
persons  engaged  in  any  active  employment.  The  experience  of  practical 
Teachers,  sanctioned  by  the  opinion  of  Physicians,  has  settled  this  proper 
temperature,  for  a  School-room,  at  from  sixty-five  to  seventy  degrees  of 
heat,  according  to  Fahrenheit’s  scale.  Any  degree  materially  short  of  this, 
either  renders  the  Pupils  uncomfortable  and  uneasy,  and  is  therefore  incom¬ 
patible  with  study  and  order ;  or  if  the  learner’s  mind  be  of  that  ardent 
cast  which  forgets  present  discomfort  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  he  rises 
from  his  seat  chilled  and  cramped  ;  and  if  the  practice  be  long  continued, 
it  must,  in  the  end,  be  at  the  expense  of  health.  On  the  other  hand,  too 
great  a  degree  of  heat  is  equally  disturbing  and  injurious.  It  stimulates 
and  over  excites  the  Pupil,  thus  also  producing  impatience,  inattention  and 
disorder,  while  the  inevitable  relaxation  which  follows,  exposes  the  system 
to  cold  and  other  diseases.  A  proper  degree  of  heat  is,  therefore,  indis¬ 
pensable  to  order,  to  study,  and  to  health. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  a  proper  temperature  shall  be  found  in  a  certain 
part  of  the  room.  It  must  be  equal  throughout  the  whole  chamber,  or  the 
injustice  will  be  committed  of  having  a  portion  of  the  Pupils — say  one- 
third  —  comfortably  warm  and  successfully  pursuing  their  studies,  while 
an  equal  portion  are  almost  roasting  and  fidgetting  near  the  stove,  and  the 


160 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


remainder,  chilled  in  body  and  torpid  in  mind,  at  the  frigid  ends  of  the 
apartment.  Neither  uniformity  of  effort,  or  of  progress,  nor  proper  order 
can  he  expected  under  such  circumstances.  Equality  of  temperature,  then, 
is  also  requisite. 

Finally,  the  proper  temperature  must  not  only  be  produced  and  spread 
over  the  whole  room,  but  it  must  be  continued  during  all  the  school  hours. 
Our  natural  climate  is  sufficiently  changeable  to  test  all  their  powers  of 
endurance,  without  subjecting  the  bodies  of  our  children  to  the  vicissitudes 
of  two  or  three  seasons,  in  as  many  hours,  by  artificial  means.  The  utmost 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  this,  and  keep  up  an  even  temperature.  If 
any  change  is  permitted,  it  should  be  a  slight  increase  of  heat  toward  the 
hour  for  dismissal,  say  from  sixty-five  to  seventy  degrees,  but  never  to  ex¬ 
ceed  the  latter.  When  persons  come  into  a  warm  room,  from  the  open  air 
and  active  exercise,  they  at  first  generally  feel  incommoded  by  the  heat ; 
but  the  longer  they  sit,  the  less  they  perceive  it,  and  the  more  heat  they 
seem  to  require.  Nor  is  there  any  danger  of  Pupils  taking  cold  from  the 
effects  of  a  slight  increase  of  heat  towards  the  hour  of  dismissal ;  inasmuch 
as  they  then  go  at  once  from  the  School-room  to  a  state  of  active  exercise, 
which  at  least  keeps  up,  if  it  do  not  add  to,  the  increased  action  of  the 
system. 

The  only  sure  test  of  this  regularity,  as  well  as  of  the  sufficiency  and 
equality  of  the  temperature,  in  a  School-room,  is  the  Thermometer,  with 
which  no  School  should  be  permitted  to  be  unprovided.  On  the  contrary, 
as  these  instruments  now  cost  little,  the  safer  plan  would  be  to  have  two  in 
each  School  which  is  heated  by  means  of  a  stove,  —  one  at  no  great  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  fire,  and  the  other  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  room,  so  as  to 
be  able,  at  all  times,  to  ascertain  the  temperature  of  every  part. 

In  most  treatises  on  the  subject  of  heating  Schools,  it  is  usual  to  connect 
with  it  that  of  ventilation,  inasmuch  as  the  large  and  highly  improved  fur¬ 
naces  now  in  use  for  heating,  are  found,  necessarily  as  well  as  economically, 
to  include  a  ventilating  apparatus.  But  the  chief  object  of  this  Manual,  is 
the  improvement  of  the  small  one-story  School-houses  of  the  rural  Districts, 
to  which  complicated  appliances  are  not  applicable,  and  in  which  the  means 
for  heating  and  ventilating  are  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  connected  with  each 
other.  Hence  these  subjects  will  be  treated  of  separately,  and  the  heating 
of  the  School-room  will  be  regarded  as  —  that  which  it  simply  is,  in  most 
small  country  School-houses  —  the  generation  and  diffusion  of  a  sufficient 
degree  of  warmth  to  render  the  occupants  of  the  room  healthfully  com¬ 
fortable. 

So  much  has  been  said  and  written  on  the  topics  of  heating  and  ventila¬ 
tion  —  such  an  amount  of  scientific  phrase  and  knowledge  has  been  thrown 
around  them  —  such  pretensions  have  been  advanced  by  inventors  and 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


161 


patentees  — •  and  such  high  requirements  have  been  made  on  all  projectors 
and  builders  of  School-houses,  —  that  most  Directors  in  the  rural  Districts 
are  now  puzzled  how  to  apply  the  few  simple  principles  really  involved  in 
the  case,  or  have  become  actually  disgusted  into  disregard  for  the  whole 
subject,  as  being  one  of  those  modern  and  useless  refinements,  without 
which  “  the  world  got  along  well  enough  in  the  good  old  times.” 

This  excess  of  scientific  terms  on  the  one  hand,  and  this  disregard  for 
sound  principles  on  the  other,  aye  both  unfortunate,  and  the  result  preju¬ 
dicial  to  the  health  and  best  interests  of  the  rising  generation.  Hence,  it 
will  be  the  main  object  of  the  present  and  of  the  next  chapter  of  this 
Manual,  to  attempt  the  separation  and  simplification  of  the  true  principles 
involved  in  the  processes  of  healthfully  and  comfortably  heating,  lighting 
and  ventilating  country  {School-houses  ;  and,  if  possible,  to  present  them  in 
such  form  as  shall  be  readily  intelligible  and  easily  applicable  by  all. 

The  wants  of  the  larger  School  buildings  will  not,  however,  be  wholly 
overlooked.  To  meet  such  cases,  the  nature  and  processes  of  ventilation 
will  be  so  far  considered,  in  connection  with  those  of  heating  and  lighting, 
as  each  may  require.  Still,  less  space  will  be  devoted  to  this  branch  of  the 
subject  than  to  the  other,  not  only  for  the  reasons  already  given,  but  be¬ 
cause  that  in  most  of  the  plans  for  large  houses  given  in  this  Manual,  full 
provision  for  connected  heating  and  ventilation  will  be  found  to  have  been 
made,  and  that  such  buildings  are  generally  erected  in  large  towns,  where 
there  is  a  sufficient  degree  of  scientific  and  mechanical  skill  and  experience, 
to  ensure  the  adoption  of  proper  measures  to  effect  the  object  in  view. 


MODES  OF  HEATING  SMALL  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The  high  open  hearth,  with  its  wide  chimney  and  blazing  wood-fire,  is 
now  rarely  seen  in  the  School-room.  Though  it  may  serve  in  a  dwelling- 
house,  where  the  Avhole  family  circle  can  cluster  closely  around  it  and  be 
comfortable,  it  is  quite  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  a  large  School-room  in 
cold  weather.  There,  all  must  retain  their  proper  seats,  and  cannot  be 
permitted,  even  if  it  were  practicable,  to  gather  round  the  hearth.  Hence 
such  arrangement  as  shall  diffuse  heat  throughout  the  whole  apartment,  and 
render  each  comfortable  in  his  stationary  seat,  becomes  indispensable.  To 
effect  this  object,  the  means  now  generally  employed  are :  1.  The  Stove 
within  the  room ;  and  2.  The  Furnace  beneath  it. 

I.  THE  STOVE. 

In  reference  to  Stoves,  the  kind,  the  position,  and  the  additional  means 
to  render  them  most  effective,  are  to  be  considered, 

21 


162 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


1 .  The  kind  of  stove  :  So  many  different  descriptions  and  patterns  ot 
stove  are  nowin  use  and  continually  making  their  appearance,  that  it  would 
he  impossible,  were  it  even  proper  in  a  work  of  this  character,  to  designate 
the  best.  Several  excellent  kinds  specially  designed  for  use  in  Schools  have 
been  prepared,  and  most  of  them  are  well  adapted  to  the  purpose.  None, 
however,  but  one  of  sufficient  size  to  heat  the  room,  and  supplied  with  a 
large  basin  for  the  evaporation  of  water,  should  be  selected. 

As  between  Avood  and  coal  stoves,  the  latter  are  preferable,  wherever  the 
proper  kind  of  fuel  for  them  can  be  readily  procured.  Coal  is  more  easily 
stored,  requires  less  preparation  for  use,  and  a  fire  made  of  it  needs  less  fre¬ 
quent  replenishing,  than  Avood.  The  objections  to  it  are,  that  the  fire  is 
not  so  easily  kindled,  nor  the  room  so  speedily  rendered  Avarm,  as  when 
wood  is  employed.  But  its  other  advantages  are  so  great  as  to  render  it 
preferable,  wherever  it  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  obtained. 

2.  The  position  of  the  stove  :  The  exact  centre  of  the  room,  is  the  point 
from  which  the  rays  of  heat,  proceeding  directly  from  the  stove,  will  be 
most  readily  distributed,  so  as  to  afford  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  an 
equality  of  benefit  to  all  the  inmates.  This  is,  therefore,  the  best  position 
lor  the  stove,  if  its  direct  radiation  of  heat  is  depended  on,  to  any  great  ex¬ 
tent,  for  warming  the  apartment.  It  is  true,  however,  that  a  large  stove 
placed  at  one  side  of  a  small  room,  may  render  the  whole  of  it  comfortably 
warm.  It  is  probably  on  this  assumption,  that,  in  the  ground  plans  of  the 
first,  fourth  and  fifth  buildings  of  Class  I,  a  space  seems  to  be  left  opposite 
the  hearth,  for  the  stoAre.  If  not  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  room,  this, 
with  a  close  hearth-board  and  a  proper  ventilating  flue  on  the  opposite  side, 
is  no  doubt  the  next  best  position.  But  for  a  common  coal  or  AArood  stove, 
without  any  additional  arrangements,  the  central  position  is  beyond  all 
question  the  most  preferable,  —  as  at  the  point  marked  b,  on  the  ground 
plan  of  building  No.  2,  Class  I.  If  the  middle  passage,  as  shoAvn  in  that 
plan,  Avere  made  four  instead  of  three  feet  Avide,  which  could  easily  be  done 
in  arranging  the  desks,  by  taking  three  inches  off  each  of  the  other  pas¬ 
sages,  there  Avould  then  be  abundant  room  for  the  stove  at  the  point  indi¬ 
cated.  Placed  there,  it  Avould  not  only  send  its  heat  equally  into  every 
quarter  of  the  apartment,  but  would  not  intercept  the  sight  of  the  teacher 
in  any  direction,  and  this  is  always  an  important  consideration. 

In  the  foregoing  remarks  as  to  position,  reference  is  chiefly  intended  to 
the  buildings  of  Class  I.  Those  of  all  the  others,  including  Class  II,  should, 
if  practicable,  be  heated  by  furnaces. 

3.  Additional  means  to  render  the  stove  effective  :  To  enable  a  s;ngle 
stoA-e  to  heat  every  portion  of  a  chamber,  —  say,  twenty-five  feet  square 
and  twelve  high,  —  a  strong  constant  fire  must  be  kept  up  in  cold  Aveather. 
This,  in  ordinary  cases,  will  either  subject  the  Pupils  near  it  to  a  too  great 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


165 


degree  of  heat,  render  the  vacation  of  a  large  space  around  the  stove  una¬ 
voidable,  or  require  the  use  of  movable  screens.  As  a  choice  of  difficulties, 
the  last  named  is  the  least,  and  the  one  usually  resorted  to.  But  though 
the  use  of  the  screen  saves  space  in  the  room,  and  partially  protects  the 
nearer  Pupils  against  extreme  heat,  it  is  not,  by  any  means,  a  perfect  reme¬ 
dy.  There  is  a  different  arrangement  which  not  only  more  effectually  an¬ 
swers  the  same  purposes,  but  secures  others  of  equal,  if  not  greater  value. 

When  a  stove  stands  unenclose'd  in  a  room,  and  without  any  direct  con¬ 
nection  with  the  outer  atmosphere,  there  is  a  constant  current  of  air  towards 
it  from  every  side  of  the  apartment,  both  to  supply  the  draft  of  combustion 
within  the  fire-chamber,  and  to  seek  contact  with  the  outer  surface  of  the 
hot  plates,  and  then  pass  upward  in  a  heated  and  consequently  more  rare¬ 
fied  condition.  This  current,  which  is  not  at  all  impeded  by  the  ordinary 
movable  screens,  owing  to  their  being  open  below  and  at  the  sides,  enters 
the  apartment  at  the  bottom  of  the  doors  and  windows,  and  through  the 
chinks  and  openings  in  the  floor  and  washboard,  passes  most  strongly  close 
along  the  floor,  where  the  air  is  coldest  and  densest,  and  thus  comes  in  di¬ 
rect  contact  with  the  feet  and  ankles  of  the  occupants.  This  effect  is  ex¬ 
tremely  unpleasant,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  most  injurious  to  health. 
Children,  especially  in  the  country,  often  enter  school  with  damp  feet,  and 
exposure  to  this  cold  current  of  air,  in  a  state  of  inaction  for  hours  together, 
is  the  sure  but  unsuspected  cause  of  many  a  severe  cold  and  hard  cough. 
The  object,  therefore,  should  be  to  prevent  this  chilling  and  unwholesome 
draft,  and  supersede  it  with  an  equal  supply  of  pure  warm  air,  so  intro¬ 
duced  as  to  incommode  no  one,  and  cause  the  space  in  the  immediate  vi¬ 
cinity  of  the  stove,  to  be  as  comfortable  and  eligible  as  any  other  part  of 
the  room.  This  can  readily  be  effected  in  the  following  simple  manner : 

A  circular  hole  is  cut  in  the  floor,  under  the  stove,  of  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  in  diameter.  This  aperture  is  then  connected  with  the  pure 
outward  air,  by  means  of  a  trunk  or  flue  in  the  cellar,  of  equal  size,  and  ex¬ 
tending  from  it  to  one  of  the  openings  in  the  cellar  wall,  in  the  manner 
indicated  in  the  plate  on  the  next  page. 

The  stove  is  then  placed  over  the  aperture,  and  a  close  circular  tin  case 
or  enclosure  is  put  all  around,  and  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  stove,  and 
firmly  fastened  to  the  floor.  This  case  is  to  extend  about  six  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  stove,  but  is  to  have  no  open  space  between  it  and  the  floor : — - 
in  effect  it  is  to  be  an  enlarged  continuation  of  the  trunk  or  flue  in  the 
cellar. 

The  kind  of  stove  most  suitable  for  this  purpose,  is  what  is  known  as  the 
“  bar-room  stove that  is,  one  of  an  upright  conical  form,  —  small  in  di¬ 
ameter,  so  as  to  occupy  the  least  practicable  space  on  the  floor,  and  high,  so 
as  to  keep  the  upward  current  of  air  as  long  as  possible  within  the  case,  and 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


1G4 


in  contact  with  the  stove.  In  the  aperture  beneath  the  stove  a  sliding  grate 
or  register  should  be  inserted,  not  only  to  prevent  pieces  of  coal,  dust,  &c., 
from  falling  into  the  flue,  but  to  close  off  the  draft  entirely  whenever  de¬ 
sirable.  The  tin  case  should  have  a  hinged  and  latched  door,  at  least 
two  feet  wide,  and  extending  from  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  stove-door,  to 

admit  fuel  and  afford  ready  access  to 
the  ash-drawer;  and  it  should  be  so 
fastened  to  the  floor  as  to  be  easily 
removable,  with  the  stove,  in  sum¬ 
mer,  at  which  time  the  sliding  grate 
or  register  ivill  close  the  aperture,  and 
thus  present  no  impediment  to  the 
free  use  of  the  place  where  the  stove 
stood . 


A.  r  Stove. 

B.  Case  or  screen  fast  to  tbe  floor. 

C.  Smoke  pipe. 

D.  Cold  air  pipe. 

E.  Lower  valv®  in  ventiduct. 


The  operation  of  this  simple  arrangement  can  be  readily  understood. 
The  pure,  cold,  outer  air  rushes  into  the  chamber  around  the  stove,  through 
the  flue  in  the  cellar,  to  fill  the  vacuum  caused  by  the  heating  and  rising 
of  the  air  previously  there.  This,  in  its  turn,  is  heated,  rarefied  and  rises, 
and  is  in  the  same  way  succeeded  by  other  portions  of  outer  air.  A  con¬ 
stant  stream  of  heated  air  into  the  room  is  thus  established  and  kept  up. 
This  pure  rarefied  air,  on  entering  the  apartment,  rises  at  once  towards  the 
ceiling,  and,  as  it  is  increased  in  quantity  by  continued  supply,  gradually 
fills  first  the  higher  and  then  the  lower  portions  of  the  room,  until  it  en¬ 
tirely  expels,  through  the  valve  at  the  floor,  and  any  other  openings  which 
may  exist,  the  dense  cold  air  previously  in  the  room.  But  the  process  does 
not  cease,  when  the  whole  volume  of  the  air  previously  in  the  room  is  ex¬ 
cluded.  It  still  continues ;  —  the  newly  arrived  warmer  and  purer  air  al¬ 
ways  taking  the  highest  position  in  the  room,  and  forcing  out,  below,  the 
lower  and  colder  portion  of  that  already  introduced,  being  also  that  which 
it  is  most  desirable  to  get  rid  of,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  become  the  most 
impure  by  passing  through  the  lungs  of  the  occupants  of  the  room. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  :  1.  The  close  and  high  case  around  the 
stove,  (which  should  always  be  of  tin,  as  that  bright  white  metal  does  not 
radiate  heat  like  sheet-iron,)  effectually  protects  the  Pupils  seated  near  the 
stove,  from  any  undue  degree  of  heat.  2.  It  cuts  off  those  chilling  and 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


165 


injurious  currents  of  cold  air,  already  spoken  offi  along  the  floor  towards 
the  stove.  3.  It  supplies  the  draft  of  air  for  combustion  from  the  cold  . 
outer  air,  and  not  from  the  warm  air  in  the  room,  thus,  to  some  extent,  ■« 
economizing  heat.  4.  It  introduces  a  constant  and  full  supply  of  pure  air 
from  without,  which  becomes  moderately  heated  as  it  enters,  and  soon 
renders  the  whole  room  comfortably  warm  in  every  part. 

To  complete  this  arrangement,  and  render  it  perfectly  effectual  and  ^ 
healthful,  there  should  always  be  a  ventilating  flue,  of  sufficient  capacity, 
placed  at  the  furthest  possible  point  from  the  stove,  and  capped  with  a  pro-  , 
per  ejecting  apparatus.  And  this  ventiduct  should  have  two  valves  or  open¬ 
ings,  one  close  to  the  floor,  which  need  scarcely  ever  be  closed,  and  the 
other  close  to  the  ceiling,  so  arranged  as  to  be  opened  and  closed  at  plea¬ 
sure.  Through  the  lower  valve,  the  cold,  dense  and  often  impure  air  near 
the  floor,  will  be  forced  out  of  the  room  by  the  downward  pressure  of  the 
lighter  and  more  rarefied  air  above.  The  upper  valve  is  to  be  used  when 
the  room  becomes  too  warm  in  winter,  or  for  general  ventilation  in  summer 
and  on  other  proper  occasions.  It  should  always,  however,  be  kept  closed 
in  the  morning  while  the  fire  is  kindling,  and  until  the  room  shall  have 
become  thoroughly  warm.  If  kept  open  during  this  time,  the  escape  of 
the  warm  air  out  of  the  upper  valve  will  be  nearly  equal  to  the  entry  of 
warm  air  around  the  stove,  and  therefore  little  progress  can  be  made  in 
heating  the  room. 

An  additional  advantage  of  this  plan  consists  in  the  fact,  that  the  stove 
may  be  placed  at  any  desirable  point  in  the  room,  so  that  it  bo  only  distant 
from  the  ventilating  fluefc  This  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  no  re¬ 
liance  whatever  is  placed  on  the  direct  radiation  of  heat  from  the  stove,  for 
the  heating  of  the  room.  The  process  being  simply  that  of  the  diffusion 
of  warm  air,  one  position  for  the  stove,  is  almost  as  effective  as  another ;  — • 
warm  air  as  readily  diffusing  itself  throughout  an  apartment  from  one  point 
as  from  any  other.  Hence  no  embarrassment  need  grow  out  of  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  selecting  a  position  for  the  stove. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  extra  work  and  fixtures  required  for  this  arrange¬ 
ment,  and  which  the  ordinary  mechanics  of  any  neighborhood  can  supply, 
should  not  be  more  than  fifteen  dollars.  This  would  include  the  cold  air 
shaft  in  the  cellar,  which  may  be  of  rough  boards,  so  that  it  is  tight  and 
smooth  in  the  inside  ;  the  register;  and  the  tin  case.  Neither  the  stove  nor 
the  ventilating  flue  are  included :  —  a  stove  of  some  kind  there  must  be  in 
every  School;  and  no  School- house,  no  matter  how  heated,  should  be  with¬ 
out  the  ventilating  flue  and  valves. 

II.  THE  FURNACE. 

The  Furnace  proper  for  heating  a  one  story  School-house  containing  a 
single  large  room,  is,  in  fact,  nothing  but  the  apparatus  just  fully  described, 


166 


School  architecture. 


placed  in  the  cellar  instead  of  on  the  floor  of  the  School-room,  and  with 
certain  modifications  to  suit  the  difference  of  position.  It  has  several  ad¬ 
vantages  over  the  encased  stove,  and  these  should  decide  in  its  favor,  when¬ 
ever  a  choice  is  to  he  made  between  them.  I.  It  saves  space  on  the  floor 
of  the  School-room  ;  2,  it  does  not  present  an  unsightly  object  in  the  room, 
nor  impede  the  view  in  any  direction ;  3,  it  introduces  the  warm  air  lower 
down  in  the  room,  and  thus  causes  its  more  rapid  diffusion ;  4,  it  saves  the 
labor  of  carrying  coal  from  the  cellar  to  the  stove  in  the  School;  and  5,  it 
preserves  the  School-room  in  a  cleaner  state,  by  excluding  the  dust,  ashes 

and  cinders  of  the  stove.  The  follow¬ 
ing  cut  very  fully  shows  the  furnace 
with  all  its  material  parts,  and  needs 
little  additional  explanation : 

d.  Cold  air  duct. 

B.  tt'arm  air  pipe  and  register, 
c.  Warm  air  chamber. 

D.  Gas  or  smoke  pipe. 

e.  V entilating  flue  with  a  valve  at  the  floor  and  ceiling. 
F.  Furnace  and  fire  chamber. 
g.  Mouth  of  furnace. 

The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  smoke  flue  behind 
the  ventilating.  This  arrangement  warms  the  venti- 
lating  flue  and  causes  it  to  act. 

The  case  around  the  heater  or  stove  should  be  of  brick.  The  heater  may 
be  an  ordinary  stove,  if  of  sufficient  size  and  proper  form ;  but  one  cast 
specially  for  the  purpose  is  better,  and  will  not  cost  much  more. 

The  cold  air  should  be  introduced  from  the  outside,  as  shown  in  the  plate, 
and  not  from  the  cellar ;  and  it  should  be  made  to  enter  as  low  as  possible 
into  the  warm  air  chamber.  The  interior  of  the  chamber  should  be  so  ar¬ 
ranged  as  to  cause  the  air  to  come  in  contact,  as  much  as  possible,  with  the 
surface  of  the  heater,  before  passing  into  the  School  room. 

A  shallow  basin,  with  not  less  than  eighteen  square  inches  of  water  sur¬ 
face,  should  be  inserted  in  the  wall  of  the  warm  air  chamber,  so  arranged 
as  to  admit  of  being  filled  with  water  from  the  outside,  but  with  the  whole 
surface  exposed  to  the  evaporating  action  of  the  warm  air  in  the  chamber. 

The  furnace  should,  if  possible,  be  so  placed  in  the  cellar  as  to  be  directly 
under  the  register  discharging  the  warm  air  into  the  School-ioom ;  and  this 
register  should  be  placed  at  a  point  opposite  to  and  at  the  greatest  conve¬ 
nient  distance  from,  the  upper  valve  of  the  ventilating  flue. 

The  heated  air  may  either  be  discharged  into  the  room  through  a  regis¬ 
ter  set  horizontally  in  the  floor,  or  upright  in  the  wall.  Probably  the  former 
is  the  more  advisable. 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES, 


16T 


Iti  heating  the  buildings  of  Class  II,  one  large  furnace  may  be  set  under 
the  centre  of  the  building,  with  a  register  in  each  division  or  apartment; 
or,  if  the  house  is  of  the  largest  size,  two  furnaces  will  be  needed,  one  under 
each  main  room,  with  side  flues  to  throw  warm  air  into  the  class-rooms, 
when  requisite. 

The  entire  cost  of  a,  furnace  for  a  one-story  building,  including  heater, 
brick  work,  cold  air  shaft,  ventilating  flue,  and  register,  would  be  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  according  to  size  and  completeness  of  ar- 
rangement. 


MODES  OF  HEATING  LARGE  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


The  same  variety  exists  in  the  means  of  heating  large  as  in  those  of 
small  School  buildings.  In  many  two-story  houses  with  several  rooms  on 
the  same  floor,  each  apartment  is  still  warmed  by  means  of  a  common  coal 
or  wood  stove. 

In  some  large  buildings  the  encased  stove  is  used  in  each 
room.  The  accompanying  cut  shows  the  manner  of  intro¬ 
ducing  the  cold  air  from  without,  to  supply  an  improved 
School  stove,  but  does  not  exhibit  the  tin  case,  without  which 
the  arrangement  is  incomplete  though  somewhat  better 
than  an  open  stove.  Both  these  plans  of  heating  cause  a 
great  waste  of  space,  labor  and  comfort ;  though  the  second 
is  decidedly  the  best.  The  stove  in  both  necessarily  oc¬ 
cupies  the  room  of  four  or  six  pupils;  the  fuel  has  to  be 
all  carried  up  one  or  more  flights  of  stairs  from  the  cellar, 
and  the  rooms  are  never  as  clean  as  if  a  furnace  were 

used. 

♦ 

Beyond  all  question  a  well  constructed  furnace  or  fur¬ 
naces  in  the  cellar  of  these  buildings  would  be  found  better, 
more  satisfactory  and  more  economical  in  all  respects,  than 
even  the  best  arranged  stoves.  But  it  is  not  necessary  here 
to  enter  into  any  details  of  the  description  of  furnaces  for 
such  buildings.  Most  of  the  plans  in  the  preceding  part 
of  this  Manual  are  designed  for  this  method  of  heating, 
and  the  necessary  flues,  &c.,  will  be  found  to  have  been 
provided  for  in  the  descriptions  and  specifications. 

To  obtain  the  best  kind  of  furnace  and  to  have  it  properly  set,  however, 
is  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty.  Directors  and  controllers,  intending  the 


aa.  Inlets  for  cold  air- 
66.  Gas  or  smoke  flues. 


163 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


introduction  of  this  improvement,  should  carefully  inquire  on  the  subject, 
and  examine  for  themselves  such  public  buildings  within  their  reach,  as  are 
thus  heated.  Having  thus  made  their  selection,  the  next  step  is  to  secure 
the  proper  and  scientific  setting  of  the  furnace.  This  should  never  be 
entrusted  to  inexperienced  hands.  The  only  safe  mode  is  to  employ  the 
owner,  or  his  authorized  agent,  of  the  kind  decided  on,  and  to  contract  with 
him  that  its  sufficiency  shall  be  established'  by  actual  and  full  trial,  before 
payment  to  him  of  the  price. 

In  this  way,  alone,  can  completeness  in  those  small  and  numerous  details, 
so  necessary  to  success,  be  ordinarily  secured.  But  there  are  certain  gen¬ 
eral  principles  or  objects,  with  reference  to  all  furnaces,  which  should  always 
be  kept  in  view  and  insisted  on. 

1 .  The  warm  air  chamber  should  be  large,  so  as  to  guard  against  the 
de-oxygenizing  —  burning  —  destroying  the  vital  principle  —  of  the  air,  by 
subjecting  it  to  an  intense  degree  of  heat,  during  its  passage  into  the  School¬ 
room.  No  loss  of  fuel  or  of  heat  need  be  the  result  of  increasing  the  size 
of  the  air  chamber :  a  given  volume  of  air,  raised  to  a  certain  degree  of 
heat,  producing  no  greater  effect  on  the  temperature  of  a  room,  than  dou¬ 
ble  the  same  volume  only  raised  to  one-half  the  same  degree  of  heat. 

2.  The  brick  wall  of  the  air  chamber  should  be  as  high  as  possible, 
though  not  so  high  as  to  come  into  contact  with  the  joists  of  the  floor. 
They  should  be  double,  and  so  arranged  as  to  have  a  current  of  cold  air 
passing  through  the  inter-space,  to  prevent  the  outer  wall  from  becoming 
warm  and  thus  wasting  heat,  as  shown  at  g.  on  the  second  Plate  under  the 
head  of  ventilation.  And  the  chamber  should  be  covered  closely  with  at  least 
two  layers  of  brick,  well  bedded  in  mortar  and  covered  with  mortar  on  the 
top,  and  every  means  adopted  to  secure  against  fire. 

3.  The  cold  air  shaft  should  always  communicate  with  the  outer  air,  at 
the  side  of  the  building  where  the  air  is  the  purest.  This  will  generally  be 
on  the  North,  unless  special  circumstances  exist  to  the  reverse. 

4.  A  close  grate  or  wire  screen  should  -be -attached  to  the  outward  open¬ 
ing  of  the  cold  air  shaft,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  leaves,  vermin,  &c.,  the 
decay  of  which  must  infect  the  air  in  its  passage  to  the  School-room. 

5.  The  heater  should  be  so  set  as  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  smoke  es¬ 
caping  from  the  fire  chamber,  or  of  dust  or  ashes  from  the  ash-hole,  into 
the  air  chamber. 

6.  A  large  shallow  vessel  to  contain  water  for  evaporation,  should  be  in¬ 
serted  so  as  to  have  its  whole  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  in  the 
air  chamber.  It  should  be  high  up  in  the  chamber ;  and  should  be  con¬ 
stantly  kept  supplied  with  pure  water,  and  also  cleaned  out  at  regular  in¬ 
tervals,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  scum  on  the  surface,  by  which  the 
evaporation  may  be  impeded. 


HEATING  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


169 


7.  The  Teacher  of  every  single  School,  and  the  Principal  of  every  large 
School,  should  visit  and  examine  the  furnace  at  least  twice  each  day,  in 
order  to  know  that  every  part  is  in  good  order,  and  the  fire  properly  at¬ 
tended  to.  It  is  a  serious  thing  to  be  obliged  to  dismiss  a  whole  School  and 
thus  lose  a  day,  or  even  the  half  of  a  day,  for  each  Pupil,  on  account  of 
the  failure  of  heat,  which  a  little  attention  would  have  prevented. 

8.  The  Directors  or  controllers  should  have  their  furnaces  carefully  ex¬ 
amined  every  year,  during  the  summer  season,  and  every  part  put  in  com¬ 
plete  order  by  a  competent  mechanic.  The  smoke  pipe,  especially,  should 
be  taken  down  and  cleaned.  The  fact  is  generally  overlooked,  that  a  large 
quantity  of  fuel  is  necessarily  consumed  in  a  large  furnace,  and  that,  con¬ 
sequently,  the  smoke  pipe,  which  is  often  little  if  any  thing  larger  than  that 
of  a  common  sized  stove,  must  soon  become  choked  with  soot,  ashes,  &c. 
Many  of  the  complaints  that  furnaces  “  do  not  draw,”  are  caused  by  neglect 
of  this  necessary  precaution. 


As  general  conclusions  from  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  Heat¬ 
ing,  it  may  be  stated : 

1.  That  the  chief  objects  to  be  effected  are,  the  generation  of  a  sufficient 
degree  of  heat,  its  equal  diffusion  throughout  the  whole  room,  and  its  uni¬ 
form  continuance  during  the  hours  of  study. 

2.  That  the  introduction  of  a  current  of  pure  fresh  air,  heated  in  its  pas¬ 
sage  into  the  room,  is  the  best  means  of  effecting  those  objects,  and  of  pre¬ 
venting  chilling  and  unwholesome  currents  and  affording  a  pure  supply  of 
air. 

3.  That  the  encased  stove  is  a  cheap  and  effectual  mode  of  accomplishing 
these  objects  in  small  one  story  buildings,  and  is  much  preferable  to  the 
common  stove. 

4.  That  the  furnace  in  the  cellar  is  still  more  desirable,  as  it  saves  space 
and  labor,  and  prevents  dust. 

5.  That  a  furnace  should  never  be  set,  except  by  a  person  of  skill ;  and 
that  it  should  be  put  and  kept  under  the  care  of  the  Teacher. 


22 


ITU 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


VII.  ON  LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


ON  THE  LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION  OF  SCHOOL  ROOMS,  WITH  PLATES  DESCRIPTIVE  OF 

VENTILATING  APPARATUS. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

It  is  said  that  a  whole  generation  —  that  is,  a  number  of  persons  equal 
to  the  total  number  in  existence  at  any  one  time  —  pass  from  this  world  in 
about  twenty-eight  years.  The  entire  population  of  Pennsylvania  is  about 
two  millions  five  hundred  thousand.  Statistics  prove  that  about  one-half 
of  the  whole  number  of  deaths  in  a  given  time,  are  those  of  persons  under 
twenty  years  of  age.  Thus  it  would  appear,  if  this  proportion  of  mortality 
continue,  even  without  allowing  any  thing  for  increase  of  population,  that 
there  will  be,  among  persons  under  twenty  years  of  age  in  this  State,  one 
hundred  and  twenty-two  deaths  daily,  forty-four  thousand  six  hundred  and 
forty-two  annually,  and  one  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  during 
the  next  generation  of  twenty-eight  years. 

Though  it  is  neither  expected  nor  believed  that  our  social  condition  will 
ever  be  so  improved,  as  that  death  shall  or  should  be  wholly  removed  from 
the  young,  or  that  all  will  live  out  their  full  “three  score  years  and  ten,'"’ 
yet  there  does  seem  to  be  an  undue  proportion  in  this  mortality  of  youth. 
Its  causes  —  if  causes  it  have  within  the  control  or  modification  of  those 
entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  rising  generation  —  should  be  investigated, 
and  so  much  of  the  remedy  as  may  be  found  within  their  power,  should  be 
applied. 

Many  contend  that  the  large  proportion  of  deaths  amongst  the  young, 
and  especially  during  infancy,  when  the  disparity  is  the  greatest,  is  owing 
to  the  fact  that  children  of  weak,  sickly  constitutions,  drop  off  in  the  first 
few  years  of  existence;  thus  not  only  swelling  the  number  of  early  deaths, 
but  decreasing  the  relative  proportion  of  those  in  later  periods,  by  increas¬ 
ing:  the  average  of  strength  and  health  amongst  the  survivors.  But  facts 
do  not  seem  to  sustain  this  view  of  the  case,  to  the  extent  claimed.  Every 
person’s  observation  must  convince  him,  that  as  many  healthy  frames  and 
promising  constitutions  are  carried  off  amongst  children  and  youth  as  amongst 
adults;  and  that  it  is  not  always  the  fat  chubby  infant  and  the  stout  boy 
or  blooming  girl  of  the  family,  that  survive  to  maturity.  Some  other  cause  — 
or  rather  “  some  cause  for  this  cause”  —  must  be  discovered  and  recog- 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


171 


nized ;  and  if  it  be  traced  to  the  startling  fact,  that  children  are  not  capa¬ 
ble  of  taking  due  care  of  themselves,  while  adults  generally  are,  what  a 
weight  of  responsibility  will  be  found  resting  on  all  charged  with  that  care. 

Independently  of  those  sudden  diseases  and  inscrutable  dispensations,  by 
which  the  Deity  sets  at  naught  the  theory  of  the  physical  perfectibility  of 
man,  the  food  that  we  eat  and  the  air  that  we  breathe  seem  to  be  the 
causes,  and  the  stomach  and  the  lungs  with  their  connected  organs,  the 
seats,  of  nearly  all  the  disorders  of  the  human  frame.  The  intestines,  the 
liver  and  the  kidneys  are  but  subsidiary  to  the  stomach,  and  the  nerves 
and  the  skin  are  dependent  on  it  for  their  healthy  action.  The  lungs  are 
of  equal  primary  importance  with  the  stomach.  They  furnish  the  whole 
frame,  from  the  almost  callous  heel  to  the  sentient  brain,  with  pure  vital 
blood.  In  respect  to  them  and  their  great  function,  the  veins  are  only  chan¬ 
nels  of  supply  and  the  arteries  of  discharge ;  and  the  heart  itself  is  but 
their  wonderful  forcing  apparatus. 

A  full  supply  of  wholesome  food  and  pure  air,  would  therefore  seem  to  be 
the  chief  means  of  growth,  strength  and  health ;  for,  on  this  the  ability  of 
the  two  great  organs  to  perform  their  proper  functions  absolutely  depends. 
And  it  is  a  question  impossible  to  be  decided,  which  is  the  more  speedily  or 
surely  injured  by  improper  food  or  treatment.  Poison  to  the  stomach  is 
not  more  fatal  than  noxious  gases  to  the  lungs ;  neither  does  unwholesome 
food  inflict  more  lasting  damage  on  the  one,  than  unwholesome  air  on  the 
other. 

When,  in  this  connection,  it  is  further  borne  in  mind,  that,  unlike  the 
brute  creation,  the  young  of  the  human  race  are  not  imbued  with  an  instinc¬ 
tive  dread  of  that  which  is  injurious  to  health,  but  are  wholly  dependent, 
in  this  respect,  on  the  guardian  care  of  others,  the  responsibility  of  those  en¬ 
trusted  with  that  care  at  once  stands  out  in  bold  and  startling  relief.  In  a 
word,  when  it  is  known  that  the  child  is  as  willing  to  eat  poisonous  food 
and  inhale  poisonous  air,  as  if  they  were  nutritious  and  wholesome,  the  duty 
of  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  furnish  nothing  but  what  is  nutritious  and 
wholesome,  is  equally  plain,  and  cannot  be  disregarded  with  impunity. 

It  is  not,  however,  within  the  scope  of  this  Manual  to  describe,  nor  in  the 
power  of  Directors  and  Teachers  to  regulate  the  food  of  the  rising  gene¬ 
ration.  But  it  is  not  only  as  clearly  within  their  power  to  secure  and 
regulate  a  full  supply  of  pure  air  for  the  children  of  the  State,  in  the  Schools 
of  the  State,  as  it  is  their  imperative  duty  to  do  so.  Let  it  not  be  replied, 
that  this  is  a  matter  of  slight  moment,  or  that  it  is  one  more  immediately 
incumbent  on  parents.  It  is  neither.  That  it  is  of  vital  concern  has  al¬ 
ready  been  shown  ;  that  it  is  more  within  the  control  of  the  School  than 
of  the  home,  is  equally  certain.  When  at  home,  children  are  rarely  long  in 
one  room  or  in  the  same  position.  They  are  constantly  stirring  about,  and 


172 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


mostly  in  the  pure  open  air ;  or,  when  in  the  house,  it  is  nearly  always  in 
company  with  a  small  number  of  persons,  in  proportion  to  the  space  occu¬ 
pied.  Their  air  privileges  are,  therefore,  little,  if  any  thing  restricted.  At 
School,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  very  differently  situated.  Confined  for 
three  hours  at  a  time,  with  short,  and  often  with  no  intermissions,  to  the 
same  apartment ;  cramped  for  the  most  of  that  time  to  the  same  position  j 
cooped  up,  in  company  with  four,  five  and  even  six  times  as  many  com¬ 
panions,  as  would  occupy  the  same  space  under  the  home  roof ;  —  it  is  in 
the  School  emphatically,  that  the  evil  can  be  and  is  inflicted  5  it  is  under 
School  restraint  that  the  child,  even  if  he  had  sufficient  discretion  to  be 
aware  of  his  danger,  is  without  power  to  avoid  it ;  and  it  is  during  School 
age,  when  the  vital  organs  are  young  and  impressible,  that  effects  are  pro¬ 
duced  which  last  through  life. 

It  is  by  no  means  contended,  that  all  early  deaths  are  caused  by  the 
breathing  of  impure  air.  But  it  is  asserted  that  very  many  diseases  thus 
originate,  and  very  many  deaths  are  thus  caused.  It  is  believed,  further, 
that  proper  attention  to  air,  food  and  other  matters,  for  the  regulation  of 
which  children  are  wholly  dependent  on  those  in  authority  over  them, 
■would  not  only  materially  lessen  the  present  proportion  of  sickness  and 
mortality  among  the  young,  but  would  send  forth  an  adult  generation  with 
bodily  vigor  in  much  nearer  approach  to  the  increased  degree  of  intellec¬ 
tual  power  designed  for  them  by  the  State,  than  is  now  generally  possessed. 

In  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  pure  air  operates  beneficially, 
and  foul  air  injuriously  on  the  human  frame,  it  may  be  proper  to  make 
some  remarks. 

Pure  respirable  air  is  composed  of  nearly  four-fifths  nitrogen,  one-fifth, 
oxygen,  and  a  small  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  or  should 
be  its  condition  before  being  taken  into  the  lungs.  But  a  marked  change 
is  found  to  have  been  effected  when  thrown  out  again.  It  is  then  dis¬ 
covered  that  one-half  of  the  oxygen  has  disappeared,  being  absorbed  by 
the  blood  in  the  lungs  ;  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  remains  little  changed 5 
but  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  has  gained  in  volume  what  the  oxygen  had 
lost.  It  would  thus  appear,  even  if  we  did  not  know  the  fact  by  other 
means,  that  large  quantifies  of  oxygen  are  indispensable  to  the  support  of 
life ;  and  that  that  which  is  ejected  by  the  lungs  in  the  process  of  keeping- 
up  the  healthful  condition  of  the  blood  by  breathing,  viz :  carbonic  acid 
gas,  is  prejudicial  when  inspired  in  any  but  small  quantities.  Hence,  also, 
it  becomes  evident  that  the  same  volume  of  air,  when  breathed  over  and 
over  again  frequently,  must  finally  loose  its  oxygen  or  life  sustaining,  and 
acquire  an  unsafe  proportion  of  carbonic  acid,  or  destructive,  gas.  Though 
the  latter,  if  free  communication  be  allowed,  does  not  become  injurious,  but 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


173 


flies  off  into  the  atmosphere,  in  its  turn  to  perform  important  functions  not 
here  necessary  to  be  specified. 

It  may  be  added,  that  the  air  in  a  School-room  twenty-five  feet  square 
and  nine  feet  high,  and  occupied  by  fifty  Pupils,  will  become  vitiated  in 
about  half  an  hour,  if  communication  with  the  outer  atmosphere  be  cut 
off;  and  that  if  continued  to  be  respired,  its  condition  will  every  moment 
become  more  noxious.  These  facts  and  considerations  clothe  the  subject 
of  School  ventilation  with  vast  importance  ;  and,  when  taken  in  connection 
with  the  circumstance  that  the  pure  air  of  Heaven  is  always  courting  our 
free  enjoyment,  if  we  do  not  actually  bar  it  out,  they  leave  us  without  any 
apology  for  its  abuse. 

Ventilation,  to  be  reliable  at  all  times  and  under  all  circumstances,  is  found 
to  be  dependent  on  the  application  of  heat  to  the  air,  or  a  portion  of  the 
air,  which  is  in  communication  with  the  room  or  the  building  to  be  venti¬ 
lated.  Hence  modern  science,  in  its  applications  to  domestic  economy,  has 
connected  the  processes  of  heating  and  ventilation  very  intimately  to¬ 
gether  ;  — so  much  so,  that  a  complete  apparatus  for  heating  always  includes 
an  arrangement  for  ventilation ;  and  vice  versa,  ventilation  is  never  con¬ 
sidered  or  attempted,  by  a  modern  architect,  except  in  conjunction  with  his 
plans  for  the  generation  and  transmission  of  heat.  This  is,  beyond  ques¬ 
tion,  philosophical  and  scientific;  and,  in  its  application  to  large  buildings 
with  many  chambers  and  much  space  to  be  supplied  with  warmth  and  pure 
air,  it  is  even  eminently  practical. 

Still,  there  are  means  for  ventilation,  not  so  thoroughly  artificial  as  those 
employed  by  modern  science,  more  dependent  for  their  operation  and 
success  upon  natural  causes,  and  equally  valuable  within  the  proper  sphere 
of  their  applicability.  As  this  class  of  means  is  chiefly  applicable  to  the 
small  Schools  of  the  rural  districts,  the  improvement  of  which  is  the  first 
object  of  this  Manual,  and  as  its  nature  and  success  depend  very  materially 
on  the  arrangement  for  admitting  light  into  those  Schools,  the  processes  of 
lighting  and  ventilation  are  here  treated  of  in  connection. 

The  question  to  be  discussed,  in  reference  to  rural  Schools,  is  not,  How 
shall  the  best  and  most  thorough  ventilation  be  secured,  irrespective  of  cost 
and  existing  fixtures?  —  If  that  were  the  question,  undoubtedly  the  answer 
would  be,  By  furnaces  in  the  cellar,  connected  with  flues  and  valves  in  the 
walls  for  winter  use ;  and  by  stoves,  or  jets  of  gas,  or  lamps,  in  those  flues, 
for  ventilation  at  other  seasons.  Thus  heating  and  ventilation  would  be 
found  to  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  inseparable.  But  the  real  question  is  :  How 
shall  small  country  School-houses  be  most  cheaply,  effectively,  and  health¬ 
fully  ventilated  ?  And  that  question,  it  is  the  first  business  of  this  chapter 
to  answer,  in  connection  also  with  lighting,  with  which  it  is  most  nearly 
related. 


174 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


All  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  structure  and  condition  of  our 
country  School-houses,  know,  that  their  general  want  of  proper  air  and 
light  proceeds  from  the  same  causes.  Low  windows,  doors,  and  ceilings, 
and  other  defects  in  plan  and  structure,  are  as  incompatible  with  a  full  sup¬ 
ply  of  air  as  of  light ;  and  whatever  the  higher  applications  of  science  may 
establish  to  be  necessary  in  reference  to  more  extensive  edifices,  if  we  here 
find  we  can  cheaply  and  effectually  remove  one  great  evil  by  making  its 
remedy  auxiliary  to  the  relief  of  another  great  evil,  it  is  certain  that  the 
lower,  yet  no  less  useful  or  practical  dictates  of  common  sense,  should  teach 
us  not  to  disregard  the  favorable  association. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  chapter,  however,  the  ventilation  of  the  larger 
School  buildings  will  be  briefly  discussed.  Under  that  head  the  due  rela¬ 
tion  of  artificial  heat,  to  what  may  be  strictly  termed  artificial  ventilation, 
will  be  taken  into  view,  and  the  best  modes  of  making  it  effective  described 
or  alluded  to. 

LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATING  EUEAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  admission  of  a  full  supply  of  light  and  air  into  a  School-house,  and 
their  admission  in  a  proper  manner,  depend  on  the  employment  of  one  or 
both  of  two  classes  of  means  or  agents. 

°  J.i 

I.  Those  which  may  be  called  natural;  and  which,  when  properly  pro¬ 
vided  for  in  the  original  plan  of  the  house,  will  continue  to  act  and  produce 
their  results  without  artificial  aids,  so  long  as  the  natural  causes  influencing 
them  continue  to  act.  These  arise  :  First,  from  the  proper  Location  of  the 
building;  and  Second ,  from  its  proper  Construction. 

II.  Those  which  are  strictly  artificial  in  their  nature,  and  depend  for 
their  continued  action  and  efficiency  on  the  co-operation  of  other  applied 
agents.  So  far  as  lighting  is  concerned,  this  class  of  means  is  inapplicable 
to  most  School-houses,  inasmuch  as  a  full  supply  of  natural  light  is  all  they 
require ;  but  in  relation  to  air,  they  often  become  applicable,  as  artificial 
means  to  ensure  a  full  supply  of  this  ever  necessary  element  frequently  be¬ 
come  indispensable.  Among  the  various  expedients  resorted  to  for  this 
purpose,  the  rarefaction  of  air  by  means  of  heat  is  the  only  one  usually 
adopted  in  School-houses,  and  will  therefore  be  the  only  one  treated  of  under 
this  head. 

I.  THE  NATURAL  AGENCIES. 

1.  Those  arising  from  proper  location:  These,  though  the  cheapest,  the 
most  easily  secured,  the  most  reliable  in  their  nature  and  the  most  salutary 
in  their  results,  are  the  most  frequently  overlooked.  One  School-house  in 
the  country  may  be  seated  in  a  deep  narrow  valley,  where  the  sunlight 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


175 


cannot  visit  it  with  full  effect,  till  late  in  the  day,  and  where  evening’s  sha¬ 
dows  fall  early  during  most  of  the  days  in  winter ;  it  may  be  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  stagnant  mill-pond,  with  its  bath  of  poisonous  vapor  preserved  from 
disturbance  by  the  surrounding  hills;  — in  short  it  may  be  so  located  as  to 
secure  all  the  deleterious  and  prevent  all  the  benign  influences  of  the  ele¬ 
ments;  while  the  next  School  may  be  cheerfully  and  healthfully  placed  on 
a  pleasant  eminence  where  it  enjoys,  by  mere  position,  a  full  and  constant 
supply  of  clear  light,  pure  air  and  every  natural  element  of  cheerfulness. 
So  in  towns; — one  building  is  stuck  back  in  a  low,  dark,  noisome  alley, 
merely  for  the  sake  of  supposed  centralness,  while  another,  it  may  be  a 
square  or  two  further  off'  from  the  dense  part  of  the  town,  is  high  and  dry, 
on  a  full  lot,  with  sunshine,  free  air,  open  space  and  heartsomeness  all 
around  it. 

No  one  can  examine  and  contrast  these  two  classes  of  locality,  without 
perceiving  —  nay  involuntarily  feeling  —  that  in  the  one,  full  light  and  free 
air  are  but  the  free  gifts  of  nature,  wisely  accepted  for  the  young,  by  their 
thoughtful  guardians ;  while  in  the  other,  the  effort  seems  to  have  been 
purposely  made  to  stint  them,  without  good  or  profit  to  any,  of  these  cheap 
but  priceless  blessings.  In  the  one  class  of  cases,  when  the  subject  of  light 
and  ventilation  come  to  be  considered,  they  are  found  to  pour  in  copiously 
on  every  side,  and  only  to  require  restriction  in  quantity  and  propriety  of 
direction ;  while  in  the  other,  no  outlay  of  money,  or  of  ingenuity,  or  of 
labor,  can  ever  remedy  the  original  error.  Yet,  in  all  probability,  the  first 
cost,  both  of  ground  and  building,  was  the  same ;  the  only  difference  being 
in  the  degree  of  original  forethought  and  due  regard  for  health  and  com¬ 
fort. 

So  long  as  the  sun  continues  to  shine  and  the  breezes  to  blow,  there  will 
be  little  danger  of  the  failure  of  light  or  air  in  Schools  properly  located  in 
the  first  instance ;  but  if  failure  happen,  it  will  only  be  such  as  may  be 
easily  remedied.  A  due  regard  for  these  requisites  in  location  will,  there¬ 
fore,  be  found  as  economical  and  convenient  as  they  are  healthful  and 
agreeable. 

2.  Natural  agencies  arising  from  proper  construction:  Lowness  is  the 
great  defect  in  the  construction  as  well  as  the  location  of  our  country  School- 
houses,  with  reference  both  to  light  and  ventilation.  Low  houses  necessa¬ 
rily  cause  low  ceilings,  admit  only  of  low  windows  and  low  doors ;  and  to 
show  that  this  lowness  is  not  incidental  but  designed,  the  doors  have  neither 
moveable  transoms  nor  head-lights  over  them,  and  the  windows  are  fre¬ 
quently  laid  on  their  sides  instead  of  being  placed  on  their  ends,  in  order, 
apparently,  to  get  them  as  low  down  in  the  walls  as  possible.  The  effect 
of  all  this  is  to  cause  the  room  to  contain  the  smallest  practicable  propor¬ 
tion  of  air  and  to  admit  the  dimmest  degree  possible  of  light,  short  of  actually 


176 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


striking  the  head  against  the  ceiling,  or  stumbling  for  want  of  light  over 
the  benches. 

The  mere  avoidance  of  these  defects,  in  the  original  structure  of  the 
building,  would  be  a  great  advance  in  School  Architecture ;  and  a  few  ad¬ 
ditional  arrangements  would  effect  an  improvement  in  light  and  ventilation, 
sufficient,  in  most  cases,  for  all  indispensable  purposes. 

There  is  no  principle  by  which  the  proper  height  of  a  School-room  from 
floor  to  ceiling  can  be  exactly  determined ;  but  there  are  certain  indispen¬ 
sable  requisites,  whose  observance  will  determine  certain  limits  between 
which  it  should  be  found. 

The  window-sill  of  a  School  house  should  not  be  so  near  the  floor  as  that 
of  a  dwelling-house,  for  the  reason  that  children  seated  at  their  studies  need 
not  see  what  is  passing  without,  whereas  this  is  a  desirable  object  in  a 
dwelling-room.  It  ought  not  to  be  lower  than  four  feet  from  the  floor,  not 
only  to  prevent  looking  out,  but  to  escape  cross  drafts  of  air  upon  the  per¬ 
sons  of  the  Pupils.  Again,  the  higher  the  windows  are  made  to  extend 
towards  the  ceiling,  the  greater  and  the  more  equal  will  be  the  degree  of 
light  introduced,  and  the  better  the  command,  by  their  means,  over  the  air 
of  the  chamber ;  arid,  as  a  window  less  than  six  feet  in  height  is  not  to  be 
thought  of,  while  those  of  seven  or  even  eight  feet  would  be  better,  —  we 
thus  have  a  height  of,  say,  twelve  feet:  that  is,  height  to  sill  four  feet; 
medium  height  of  window  seven  feet;  and  one  foot  above  window,  making 
twelve  feet.  Less  than  this  should,  in  no  case  be  admitted ;  and  more  than 
fourteen  for  the  smaller  and  sixteen  for  the  larger  buildings,  would  seem  to 
be  unnecessary. 

The  objections  to  rooms  with  very  high  ceilings  consist  in  the  difficulty 
of  heating  them  in  time  for  use  in  the  morning,  and  of  keeping  them  warm 
through  the  day.  It  is  true,  that  where  there  are  inadequate  means  of 
ventilation,  the  height  of  the  room  is  almost  the  only  reliance  in  this  re¬ 
spect;  but  where  ventilation  is  properly  provided  for,  the  ceiling  need 
never  be  so  high  as  to  add  to  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  heating'.  Good  ven¬ 
tilation  can  be  effected  in  a  room  twelve  feet  high  as  well  as  in  one  fourteen 
or  sixteen ;  and  as  the  former  height  is  sufficient  for  light,  the  height  of 
the  ceiling  need  not  materially  exceed  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  in  ordinary 
cases. 

The  arrangement  of  the  windows  with  reference  to  light,  is  a  matter  of 
very  great  importance.  The  loss  of  sight  is  probably  more  inconvenient 
to  the  subject  of  it,  and  to  those  upon  whom  he  thus  becomes  dependent, 
than  that  of  any  of  the  other  senses  to  whose  deprivation  wre  are  liable ; 
and  consequently  its  impairment  is  proportionably  a  serious  evil.  The 
abuse  of  the  eye  by  subjecting  it  to  over  exertion  in  an  imperfect  light,  or 
to  the  dazzling  effect  of  too  much,  or  wrongly  directed  light,  is  known  by 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


177 


the  sad  experience  of  many,  and  can  readily  be  conceived  by  all  who  con¬ 
sider  the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  organ.  Hence,  as  light  is  only  admitted 
by  means  of  windows,  its  sufficiency  and  proper  direction  are  both  to  be 
considered  in  the  arrangement. 

The  windows,  as  before  stated,  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  in  height, 
and  placed  at  least  four  feet  from  the  floor.  Neither  should  they  be  less 
than  three  feet  in  breadth,  — both  height  and  breadth  being  clear  of  the 
casings.  One  such  window  to  every  eight  feet  of  side-wall  in  the  room  to 
be  lighted,  and  placed  at  equal  distances,  will  admit  an  abundance  of  light, 
if  the  School-house  be  placed  on  an  open  lot,  with  no  outside  impediments 
to  its  entrance.  If  such  obstacles  do  exist,  —  such  as  a  low,  dark  position, 
closeness  of  neighboring  buildings,  &c.,  the  windows  should  be  more  nu¬ 
merous. 

To  regulate  the  quantity  of  light,  there  should  always  be  Venetian  blinds 
with  movable  slats  to  the  windows  of  a  School-house,  so  that  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  may  be  prevented  from  entering,  from  the  east  during  the  morn¬ 
ing,  and  from  the  west  in  the  afternoon.  If  these  cannot  be  afforded,  cur¬ 
tains  of  cheap  stuff,  if  properly  hung,  will  answer  nearly  the  same  purpose. 
A  full  supply  of  light  having  been  insured,  by  the  insertion  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  properly  placed  windows  in  the  first  instance,  the  quantity  of  it 
can  always  be  thus  regulated. 

The  direction  of  the  light  falling  on  the  Pupils  is  a  matter  of  equal  im¬ 
portance,  but  one  not  often  duly  considered.  Too  much  light,  if  it  do  not 
fall  improperly  upon  the  eye,  may  be  borne ;  for  a  sound  eye,  by  the  con¬ 
traction  of  the  pupil,  will  accommodate  itself  to  the  increase  of  the  rays. 
But  when  bright  sunlight  comes  directly  in  front,  blazing  into  and  dazzling 
the  eye,  or  unimpeded  and  directly  from  either  side,  falling  unequally  upon 
those  delicate  organs  —  in  both  cases  rendering  the  page  or  the  slate  bright 
and  dazzling ;  —  or  when  the  rays  fall  from  behind,  throwing  the  shadow 
of  the  person  on  the  object  of  study  and  thus  confusing  and  straining  the 
eye ;  — in  all  these  cases,  the  direction  is  such  as  unnecessarily  to  strain  the 
sight,  and  the  effect  cannot  but  be  injurious. 

A  shaded  sky-light  would  probably  be  the  most  pleasant  and  desirable 
arrangement ;  but  this  is  out  of  the  question  in  nearly  all  Schools.  The 
next  best  thing  is  so  to  regulate  the  side-lights,  which  are  indispensable, 
since  they  are  necessary  also  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation,  as  to  produce 
the  best  possible  effect  by  the  proper  direction  and  control  of  the  rays. 

If  the  School  be  a  one  story  building,  or  even  have  two  stories  but  with 
only  one  School-room  on  each  floor,  and  if  it  front,  as  it  should,  toward  the 
south,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  on  this  subject.  In  that  case,  the  entrance, 
clothes-room,  &c.,  and  the  stairs  if  there  be  two  stories,  being  on  the  front, 
of  course  there  will  be  no  front  windows  opening  directly  into  the  School- 
23 


178 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


room.  The  light  must  therefore  come  from  the  north,  east,  or  west.  But 
as  Pupils  should  never,  under  any  circumstances,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  be 
made  to  sit  with  an  unshaded  window  in  front  of  them,  and  as  the  north 
end  of  the  room  will  properly  be  devoted  to  the  Teacher’s  platform  and  the 
black-board,  this  takes  the  north  end  or  wall  out  of  the  question  for  win¬ 
dows  ;  leaving  only  the  east  and  west  sides  for  the  admission  of  light. 
These  will  not  only  be  found  equal  to  the  purpose,  if  furnished  with  a  suffi¬ 
cient  number  of  properly  placed,  full  sized  windows,  but  can  be  made,  as 
before  remarked,  to  admit  a  pleasant  but  subdued  light  by  means  of  blinds 
or  curtains. 

If  the  north,  or  any  other  wall  toward  which  the  Pupils  are  faced,  have 
a  window  or  windows  in  it,  and  they  are  thought  necessary  for  ventilation, 
there  should  be  a  blind  or  curtain  to  each,  which  should  always  be  kept 
closed,  so  as  to  darken  the  window. 

In  buildings  with  more  School-rooms  than  one  on  the  same  floor,  Pupils 
cannot  always  be  faced  toward  the  north.  In  such  cases  care  should  be 
taken  to  seat  them  with  their  faces  toward  a  wall  with  no  window's  in  it ; 
and  if  vdndows  be  in  either  the  south,  east  or  west  walls,  they  should  be 
carefully  piovided  With  blinds  or  curtains;  and  green  is  the  best  color  for 
either,  being  most  grateful  and  least  straining  to  the  eye. 

By  the  observance  of  these  principles  in  the  construction  and  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  School-house,  a  full  supply  of  pleasant  and  safely  directed  light 
may  always  be  commanded,  and  many  a  bright  young  eye  be  retained  in 
clearness  and  strength,  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature  and  add  to  its  owmer’s 
fund  of  knowledge,  from  year  to  year,  till  the  end  of  life  ;  instead  of  being 
early  impaired,  and  of  thus  causing  the  mind  to  be  starved  by  the  loss  or 
the  weakness  of  the  sense  most  necessary  to  its  improvement. 

The  window  is  also  the  most  efficient  agent,  in  what  has  been  called 
natural  or  ordinary  ventilation.  During  summer  and  the  mild  weather  in 
spring  and  autumn,  it  is  almost  the  sole  means  relied  on  for  the  purpose 
not  only  of  cooling  the  room,  but  of  giving  exit  to  impure  air,  by  opening 
opposite  windows,,  and  thus  creating  a  current.  To  render  them  as  fully 
effective  as  possible  for  this  purpose,  all  School-room  windows  should  be 
double  hung,  —  that  is,  so  arranged  with  pulleys  or  otherwise,  that  the 
upper  sash  may  be  lowered,  as  well  as  the  lower  one  raised,  at  pleasure.  In 
large  buildings  with  very  high  ceilings,  three  sashes  are  sometimes  inserted 
in  the  same  window  opening.  In  this  case  the  middle  sash  may  be  station¬ 
ary.  But  in  either  case,  the  lowering  of  the  opposite  upper  sash  of  a  School¬ 
room,  in  mild  weather,  effects  a  kind  of  ventilation  with  which  no  strictly 
artificial  arrangement  can  compare ;  and  therefore  the  omission  to  provide 
for  it,  in  the  erection  of  the  building,  is  inexcusable.  In  winter,  also,  when 
the  room  becomes  too  warm,  or  the  air  has  been  rendered  foul  from  the  failure 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


179 


of  other  means  relied  on  for  its  ventilation,  the  same  lowering  of  the  upper 
sash  will  set  all  right  in  two  or  three  minutes. 

An  opening  in  the  ceiling  is  another  provision  which  should  always  be 
made  for  natural  ventilation,  in  a  one-story  School-house.  This  aperture 
should  not  be  less  than  three  feet  square,  in  a  room  twenty-five  by  thirty 
feet ;  and  it  should  have  a  cover  or  valve  j:o  it,  so  arranged,  by  means  of 
hinges  and  a  pulley,  as  to  admit  of  being  opened  and  closed  at  pleasure, 
from  the  floor  of  the  room.  To  render  its  operation  complete,  there  should 
also  be  a  slat  window  in  each  gable  end  of  the  loft,  so  as  to  permit  a  free 
escape  of  the  air  passing  out  of  the  School-room  into  the  loft.  This  aper¬ 
ture  in  the  ceiling  ought  always  to  be  kept  open  in  summer  and  mild 
weather,  and  will  be  found  an  efficient  means  of  rapidly  cooling  the  room 
in  winter,  when  it  may  be  unadvisable  to  open  the  windows. 

The  last  fixed  agent  of  ventilation,  solely  dependent  on  natural  or  ordi¬ 
nary  causes  for  its  operation,  that  will  be  mentioned,  is  the  Ventilating  Flue. 
The  mode  of  constructing  this  flue,  will  be  found  described  in  several  of 
the  specifications  in  the  foregoing  part  of  this  Manual ;  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  this  chapter  a  table  will  be  given,  showing  the  proper  dimensions  of 
it,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  room.  It  needs  here  be  only  remarked, 
that  whether  composed  of  boards,  or  of  stone  or  brick,  it  should  be  made  as 
smooth  and  even  as  possible  on  the  inside,  so  as  to  present  no  unnecessary 
opposition  or  friction  to  the  upward  current  of  air  through  it ;  and  that, 
whenever  practicable,  it  is  advisable  to  place  it  along  side  or  in  front  of  the 
smoke  flue,  the  heat  of  which  rarefying  the  air  within  it,  will  aid  in  the 
process  of  ventilation. 

The  parts  of  the  flue  are :  The  tube,  the  lower  opening  or  valve,  the  up¬ 
per  opening  or  valve,  and  the  cap.  The  tube  extends  from  the  floor  of  the 
room  to  be  ventilated,  to  a  point  two  or  three  feet  above  the  highest  part 
of  the  roof,  and  has  been  already  described.  The  lower  valve  is  an  open¬ 
ing  the  full  size  of  a  horizontal  section  of  the  tube  itself,  placed  close  to 
floor  of  the  room ;  it  usually  has  a  hinged  shutter,  though  as  it  is  seldom  ne¬ 
cessary  to  use  it,  a  grate  or  wire  screen  will  be  sufficient.  The  upper  valve 
is  an  opening  of  similar  size,  with  a  door  to  it,  placed  close  to  the  ceiling, 
and  so  arranged  by  means  of  a  pulley,  as  to  be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure 
from  the  floor  of  the  room.  The  cap  is  a  covering  on  top  of  the  flue,  so 
constructed  as  to  permit  the  ascending  current  of  air  to  escape  freely,  yet 
to  exclude  the  rain  and  snow,  and  protect  it  from  downward  currents  or 
blasts. 

The  operation  of  this  flue  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  depends  altogether 
on  natural  causes.  Having  been  incidentally  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  in  connection  with  the  Encased  Stove,  it  requires  only  a  brief  no¬ 
tice  here.  When  the  upper  valve  is  closed,  the  higher  strata  of  air  in  the 


ISO 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


room  are  successively  displaced  by  the  warmer  air  from  the  stove  or  fur¬ 
nace,  rising  above  them,  and  causing  them  to  descend  and  displace  an  equal 
volume  of  cold  air  below,  which  is  necessarily  forced  out  of  the  room 
through  the  lower  opening  or  valve.  This  process  goes  on  till  the  whole 
air  in  the  room  becomes  too  hot  for  comfort,  or  requires  change  for  health 
sake;  when,  the  upper  valve  being  opened,  the  hottest  air  near  the  ceiling 
rushes  out  through  the  flue  till  the  air  in  the  room  is  again  reduced  to  a 
proper  temperature,  or  restored  to  the  required  state  of  purity. 

But  this  process  is  not  wholly  dependent  on  the  rarefying  agency  of  the 
stove  or  furnace.  In  many  states  of  the  atmosphere,  it  proceeds  with  more 
or  less  activity,  when  no  fire  is  required.  For  instance,  during  most  of  the 
days  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  those  chilly  spells  which  sometimes  occur 
in  summer,  the  outer  air  is  cool  enough  to  require  the  closing  of  the  win¬ 
dows  and  doors  of  the  School-room.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  body 
of  air  within  the  room  soon  becomes  somewhat  heated,  by  contact  with  the 
warmer  bodies  of  the  Pupils  and  also  by  being  passed  through  their  lungs. 
It  thus  becomes  rarefied  and  gradually  rises  toward  the  ceiling,  whence  it 
escapes  through  the  upper  valve  which  should  be  left  open  for  this  purpose, 
and  is  succeeded  by  cooler  and  fresher  air  pouring  from  the  outside  into  the 
room,  through  all  the  lower  openings,  to  supply  its  place.  This,  though  not 
so  rapid  a  process  as  when  the  current  is  assisted  by  the  heat  of  a  stove 
or  furnace,  is  no  less  purifying.  Carbonic  acid  gas,  though  comparatively 
heavy  in  its  cool  state,  yet  when  heated  and  rarefied,  will  ascend ;  hence, 
in  the  conditions  of  the  air  just  described,  the  difference  of  density  or  tem¬ 
perature  between  the  exterior  air  and  that  of  the  School-room  not  being 
very  great,  the  degree  of  heat  imparted  to  the  air  expired  by  the  lungs  is 
often  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  ascend  to  the  ceiling  and  thus  pass  out  of  the 
room,  carrying  with  it  the  noxious  gas. 

In  relation  to  the  management  of  the  flue,  it  need  only  be  added,  that  the 
upper  valve  should  invariably  be  opened  before  closing  the  School-room  for 
the  night,  in  order  thoroughly  to  clear  it  of  every  portion  of  the  air  which 
was  in  it  during  the  day,  and  to  insure  its  being  filled  with  a  full  supply  of 
fresh  pure  air  for  next  morning ;  and  that  in  most  cases  the  same  thing 
should  be  done  at  noon.  The  upper  valve  should  be  closed,  however,  an 
hour  or  half  an  hour  before  the  assembling  of  the  School,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  room  and  the  state  of  the  weather,  in  order  to  have  it  comforta¬ 
bly  warm  for  the  Pupils. 

The  annexed  plate  represents  a  simple  yet  very  efficient  mode  of  assist¬ 
ing  the  ventilating  powers  of  the  flue,  in  a  room  heated  by  means  of  a  com¬ 
mon  stove,  placed  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  from  the  flue.  The  stove 
pipe  is  inserted  in  the  flue  and  carried  up  inside  of  it  —  the  upper  part  of 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


181 


the  flue  being  widened  for  that  purpose.  Near  or  around  the  entrance  of  the 
pipe  into  the  flue,  the  upper  valve  of 
the  latter  is  placed.  Thus  the  heat 
of  the  stove  pipe  warms  the  flue  and  the 
air  in  it,  and  very  greatly  increases  the 
upward  current,  acting  also  powerfully 
on  the  lower  valve,  when  the  upper  one 
is  closed. 

c.  Opening  at  the  floor,  to  let  the  heavier  strata  of  im¬ 

pure  air  escape. 

d.  Opening  around  the  pipe,  to  let  the  over  heated  or 

impure  air  pass  off. 

e.  Flue  for  gas  and  ventiduct. 

/.  Stove  pipe. 

g.  An  ejector  to  counteract  the  effecTof  down  blasts  of 

wind  and  exclude  the  rain. 

These  arrangements  for  ventilation  thus  far  contemplate  mainly  the  dis¬ 
charge  of  impure  or  too  hot  air  from  the  School-room  ;  but  it  is  also  as  ne¬ 
cessary  to  provide  for  a  supply  from  without  of  pure  fresh  air,  to  take  its 
place.  In  houses  heated  by  means  of  furnaces  or  encased  stoves,  this  is 
effected  by  the  admission  of  pure  outward  air  through  the  furnace,  or  the 
case  of  the  stove.  But  where  a  stove  unconnected  with  the  outward  air  is 
depended  on,  some  reliable  means  for  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  should  be 
adopted.  In  many  buildings  the  openings  in  the  floor  and  about  the  doors 
and  windows  are  sufficient  for  this  purpose  ;  but  the  better  way  is  to  stop 
these  up,  and  open  a  hole  under  the  stove,  with  a  movable  cover  to  it,  so 
as  to  admit  air  when  needed,  and  to  be  closed  when  not  required.  This  po¬ 
sition  for  such  opening  will  be  the  most  advisable,  inasmuch  as  the  fresh 
air  will  become  somewhat  heated  the  instant  it  enters  the  room,  from  con¬ 
tact  with  the  stove,  and  will  not  chill  the  inmates  in  its  passage  toward  the 
fire,  as  if  it  entered  at  a  distance  from  it. 

II.  ARTIFICIAL  AGENCIES. 

Thus  far  the  process  is  simple  and  wholly  dependent  on  the  operation  of 
natural  causes ;  but  there  are  certain  sluggish  states  of  the  atmosphere 
during  which  no  ascending  current  takes  place  within  the  flues,  —  a  state  of 
immovable  equilibrium  appearing  to  exist  between  the  outward  air  and  that 
within  the  School-room.  The  flue  then  loses  its  self-acting  efficiency  as  a 
ventilator.  Under  such  circumstances,  which  however  are  not  of  very  fre¬ 
quent  occurrence  or  long  duration,  the  application  of  artificial  means  to 
create  a  current  becomes  indispensable,  if  the  flue  be  solely  relied  on  for 
ventilation.  But,  as  such  means  do  not  come  under  this  division  of  the  sub-, 
ject  and  are  not  readily  applicable  to  small  School-houses,  their  description 


182 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


will  be  more  appropriate  in  connection  with  the  larger  buildings,  in  the 
latter  part  of  this  chapter. 

Costly  arrangements  even  for  the  important  objects  of  lighting  and  heating 
country  School-houses,  are  generally  neither  within  the  means  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict,  nor  easily  applicable  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  Fortunately 
they  are  not  absolutely  necessary.  A  knowledge  of  the  few  simple  and 
natural  principles  involved,  and  their  due  observance  in  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  these  buildings,  will,  in  nearly  every  case,  effect  all 
that  is  to  be  desired.  A  country  School,  with  its  isolated  building  standing 
out  in  the  free  air,  arid  its  forty  or  fifty  scholars,  is  an  entirely  different 
thing  from  the  close  town  School-house,  with  its  hundreds  of  inmates,  and, 
in  many  instances,  its  limited  ground  and  confined  if  not  impure  atmos¬ 
phere.  The  careful,  elaborate  means  for  ventilation  indispensable  to  the  one 
may  not  be  so  necessary  to  the  other  ;  still,  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air  is 
equally  requisite  to  both  ;  and  hence,  as  the  rural  School-house  is,  to  a  great 
extent,  necessarily  dependent  in  this  respect  on  the  simpler  and  cheaper 
self-acting  agencies  which  have  been  described,  a  greater  degree  of  caution 
and  knowledge  becomes  indispensable  in  its  original  location  and  proper  con¬ 
struction,  and  in  the  due  arrangement  of  its  parts.  An  error,  in  any  of  these 
particulars,  may  possibly  be  remedied  by  artificial  means  in  the  large  town 
School  building,  where  the  numbers  interested  and  the  value  of  the  property 
at  stake,  will  cause  every  effort  to  be  made  for  that  purpose.  But  in  the 
small  country  School  it  is  not  so.  There,  the  powers  of  nature  are  the  sole 
reliance  in  most  cases  ;  and  they  cannot  be  tampered  with.  They  will  only 
act  in  accordance  with  their  own  laws,  and  cannot  be  forced.  If  duly  un¬ 
derstood,  however,  and  properly  taken  advantage  of,  they  may  be  relied  on 
to  their  full  extent. 


ON  LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATING  LARGE  SCHOOLS. 

These  subjects  were  necessarily  discussed  together,  in  relation  to  the 
smaller  and  lower  School-buildings  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  State ;  but 
in  reference  to  the  larger  and  higher  edifices  of  the  towns  and  cities,  they 
have  less,  though  still  considerable,  relation  to  each  other.  Under  the  pre¬ 
sent  head  they  will,  therefore,  be  treated  of  separately;  though  so  much 
has  already  been  said  on  both  points  in  other  connections,  that  little  re¬ 
mains  to  be  added. 

LIGHTING  LARGE  SCHOOLS. 

There  is  rarely  any  deficiency  in  the  number  of  windows  found  in  our 
larger  School  edifices ;  the  defect,  if  any  in  this  respect,  being  that  they 
are  too  numerous.  Sometimes  this  extreme  is  so  great,  that  the  outside 
wall  seems  to  be  a  mere  frame-work  to  keep  the  windows  from  all  run- 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


183 


ning  into  one,  like  the  stiles  in  a  glass  sash  ;  —  the  windows  being  the  prin¬ 
cipal  part,  and  the  walls  merely  the  filling  in.  Whether  the  building  gains 
in  architectural  beauty,  or  in  strength  and  solidity,  by  these  numerous  open¬ 
ings,  need  not  here  be  discussed;  but  certain  it  is,  that  the  interior  effect  is 
neither  useful  nor  ornamental. 

To  say  nothing  of  the  serious  objection,  that  little  space  is  left  for  a  map  or 
a  black-board  on  the  side  walls  of  such  buildings,  though  most  frequently 
the  faces  of  the  Pupils  are  in  that  direction,  the  cross-lights  from  these 
numerous  windows  are  often  very  unpleasant  and  trying  to  the  eyes.  The 
rays  of  light  thus  admitted,  whether,  direct  or  reflected  from  some  outward 
object,  traverse  the  room  in  every  conceivable  direction,  and  cross  each 
other  at  almost  every  possible  angle.  If  they  afforded  a  sufficiency  of 
light,  this  might  be  borne ;  but  even  that  is  not  always  the  case,  for  win¬ 
dows  may  be  numerous  without  being  large.  On  the  contrary,  number  can 
only  be  indulged  in  at  the  expense  of  size ;  and  as  the  dimensions  of  the 
wall  to  be  pierced  are  limited,  these  apertures  necessarily  frequently  almost 
take  the  character  of  loop-holes. 

To  secure  a  full  supply  of  light  in  a  School  room,  as  well  as  to  command 
ventilation  by  this  means,  the  windows  should  be  high,  —  that  is,  long  from 
top  to  bottom,  — •  and  comparatively  narrow.  In  dwelling-houses,  owing  to 
the  ordinary  height  of  the  ceilings  (from  eight  to  ten  feet)  the  window  can¬ 
not  be  over  six  feet  in  height;  and  as  it  is  usually  made  three  feet  wide, 
the  principle  seems  to  be  settled  in  domestic  architecture,  that  the  height  of 
a  window  can  only  be  twice  its  breadth.  Hence,  to  get  enough  of  these 
three  by  six  windows  into  a  School-house  to  admit  the  supposed  necessary 
quantity  of  light,  they  must  be  packed  as  closely  together  as  the  stability 
of  the  building  will  allow  :  forgetful  of  the  fact  that  a  room  whose  height 
is  or  should  be  fourteen  or  sixteen  feet,  would  be  better  and  more  pleasantly 
lighted  by  means  of  two-thirds  or  even  one-half  the  number,  with  a  corres¬ 
ponding  increase  of  size.  Windows  three  feet  wide  by  nine  feet  high,  or 
four  by  ten,  would  effect  this  desirable  object. 

The  use  of  these  high  windows  would  effect  other  valuable  purposes,  be¬ 
side  that  of  admitting  a  full  supply  of  light  More  of  them  than  of  the 
shorter  or  lower  form  could  be  inserted,  in  the  sides  or  walls  of  the  room 
through  which  it  might  be  most  desirable  to  introduce  the  light,  and  less  in 
the  others  :  thus  in  a  great  measure  controlling  the  direction  of  the  light. 
Such  openings  also  have  a  more  lofty^  appearance,  and  therefore  impress  the 
feelings  more  favorably.  In  addition  to  this,  as  before  remarked,  they  leave 
greater  space  of  intervening  wall  for  maps,  black-boards,  &c.,  and  they  per¬ 
form  a  much  more  efficient  agency  in  ventilation. 

The  position  of  the  windows  of  a  room  in  a  large  School-building,  where 
there  may  be  several  chambers  on  the  same  floor,  cannot  be  so  absolutely 


184 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


commanded,  as  where  there  is  only  one.  When  there  are  only  two  rooms 
on  a  floor;  of  course  there  may  be  three  side-walls  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Architect  for  this  purpose;  and  in  that  case,  the  largest  number  should,  if 
possible,  be  placed  in  the  east  and  west  walls,  and  the  smallest  in  that  on 
the  south.  When  a  story  is  divided  into  four  rooms,  each  will  probably  be 
a  corner  room,  and  only  two  walls  will  be  left  for  the  admission  of  light. 

When  the  light  comes  from  an  unpleasant  direction,  the  only  remedy  is 
the  blind  or  curtain.  If  the  former  is  used,  that  with  movable  slats  is  pre¬ 
ferable,  as  affording  an  opportunity  for  controlling  the  quantity  of  light 
admitted,  without  opposing  an  undue  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  air. 

The  outside  shutters  to  the  lower  windows,  without  which  no  School 
should  be  considered  as  completed,  and  the  outside  blinds,  are  very  often 
seen  to  be  shattered  by  the  wind  and  not  mifrequently  hanging  by  one 
hinge  or  entirely  displaced.  This  is  caused  by  the  careless  practice  of 
janitors  and  even  Teachers,  who  open  the  shutters  without  fastening  them 
back  to  the  wall.  Every  principal  Teacher  should  be  made  responsible  for 
damage  caused  by  this  kind  of  negligence.  Shutters  and  blinds  on  the  out¬ 
side  are  no  doubt  safer  and  better  than  those  hung  inside,  as  they  afford 
a  protection  to  the  glass  in  time  of  storm,  and  from  malicious  injury  when 
the  School-house  is  unoccupied.  But  if  the  persons  who  are  to  have  charge 
of  the  School,  cannot  be  relied  on  to  cause  them  to  be  carefully  opened  and 
shut,  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  have  them  hung  on  the  inside. 

VENTILATION  OF  LARGE  SCHOOLS. 

The  natural  agencies  of  ventilation,  described  in  the  first  part  of  this 
chapter,  are  as  applicable,  when  available,  to  large  as  to  small  School-houses. 
On  this  account,  every  effort  should  be  made  by  the  Directors,  controllers 
and  builders,  to  secure  as  many  of  them  as  practicable  in  the  original  loca¬ 
tion  and  construction  of  those  edifices,  which  are  now  springing  up  to  orna¬ 
ment  and  improve  so  many  of  our  towns.  To  effect  this  radical  and  essen¬ 
tial  purpose,  a  slight  difference  in  distance,  or  in  the  cost  of  the  lot  or  the 
house,  should  never  be  regarded.  The  School-house  is  to  last  for  ages ;  and 
there,  generation  after  generation  of  the  youth  of  the  place,  are  not  only  to 
imbibe  the  stream  of  knowledge,  but  physically  to  imbibe  draughts  of  health 
or  its  reverse  with  the  air  they  inhale. 

The  artificial  means  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  and  keeping 
up  a  full  supply  of  pure  air  in  large  public-buildings,  are  various.  Into 
some  it  is  forced  by  what  may  be  called  air  pumps  driven  by  steam.  In 
others,  pipes  filled  and  heated  with  steam  are  so  distributed,  as  to  get  up  and 
keep  up  the  required  circulation.  But  the  direct  application  of  the  heat 
of  fire  in  winter,  and  of  gas  or  a  lamp  or  a  stove  in  summer,  to  the  air,  is 
the  method  most  commonly  employed,  when  artificial  means  are  required 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


185 


in  addition  to  natural  causes.  Probably  no  arrangement  of  this  kind  will 
be  found  more  complete  or  more  intelligibly  described,  than  that  in  use  in 
the  Philadelphia  High  School,  an  account  of  which  may  be  seen  on  page 
139,  of  this  Manual.  It  is  not  supposed  that  the  enlarged  and  complete 
arrangement  there  so  fully  explained,  will  be  copied  in  all  its  parts  in  many 
buildings ;  but  the  facts  and  principles  detailed,  cannot  but  be  useful  to 
every  person  charged  with  the  erection  of  a  large  School  building. 

Complete,  safe,  al¬ 
ways  -  reliable  venti¬ 
lation  by  artificial 
means,  can  be  most 
readily  and  economi¬ 
cally  effected  by  the 
adoption  of  all  the 
necessary  details  of 
preparation  in  the  first 
structure  of  the  build¬ 
ing.  Errors  in  this 
respect  then  commit¬ 
ted  may  subsequently 
be  measurably  remo¬ 
ved,  but  can  hardly 
ever  be  entirely  rem¬ 
edied.  For  this  rea¬ 
son,  and  as  this  is  a 
matter  of  scientific 
and  mechanical  ar¬ 
rangement,  wholly 
within  the  province 
of  the  professional 
builder,  little  fur¬ 
ther  need  here  be  pre¬ 
sented  On  the  Subject,  aa.  Main  air  flue  and  opening  for  the  first  story. 

bb.  Main  air  flue  and  opening  for  the  second  story. 
cc.  Main  air  flue  and  opening  for  the  third  story. 

and  explanations  pre-  <id.  Gas  or  smoke  flue. 

■pared  for  the  purpose  e'  ®Penin§  from  warm  air  chamber  into  a  flue. 

.  /.  Cold  air  shaft. 

by  the  experienced  g.  Cavity  around  the  warm  air  chamber  for  the  circulation  of  a  portion  of 
Architects  to  whom  C0^  a'r  ^rom  t0  equalize  the  temperature  of  the  wall ;  which 

.  .  air  becomes  warm  and  passes  into  the  chambers,  and  circulates  again 

that  branch  of  the  sub-  With  the  main  current. 

ject  of  this  Manual  has  been  committed. 

24 


than  the  drawings 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


1  St3 


The  larger  of  the  two  figures  in  the  foregoing  plate  shows  a  side  section  of 
an  improved  furnace,  with  its  heater  and  gas  or  smoke  pipe,  together  with  the 
warm  air  chamber  and  the  registers  for  emitting  the  heated  air  into  the  differ¬ 
ent  stories.  The  smaller  exhibits  a  front  view  or  section  of  the  smoke  flue, 
with  the  warm  air  flues  side  by  side,  leading  to  and  opening  into  each  story. 
As  has  been  before  remarked,  under  the  head  of  heating,  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  the  flues  will  be  found  to  be  provided  for  in  the  speci¬ 
fications  of  the  several  classes  of  buildings  in  this  Manual ;  and  it  needs  here 
only  be  added,  that  a  flue  depended  on  to  heat  several  successive  stories, 
should  diminish  about  one-fourth  in  size  for  each  story  above  the  first. 

The  most  important  portion  of  the  appa¬ 
ratus  in  connection  with  artificial  ventila¬ 
tion,  is  the  ventiduct  or  ventilating  flue. 
The  furnace  with  its  flues  for  warm  air, 
only  acts  on  the  temperature  of  the  room  to 
be  ventilated  as  well  as  heated  ;  but  without 
proper  means  to  give  vent  to  the  current  or 
circulation  of  air  thus  created,  it  would  be 
injurious  instead  of  beneficial.  The  oppo¬ 
site  plate  shows  plainly  to  the  eye  a  set  of 
ventiducts,  side  by  side,  for  the  ventilation 
of  the  different  stories  of  the  same  building, 
with  the  upper  and  lower  valves  or  open¬ 
ings  so  often  alluded  to  in  this  Manual.  It 
also  exhibits  a  cross  section  of  an  improved 
ejecting  cap,  without  some  apparatus  of 
which  kind  the  whole  would  be  incomplete. 

At  seasons  when  the  sluggishness  of  the 
air  is  such  as  to  prevent  the  natural  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  ventilating  flues,  and  when  no 
fire  is  needed  in  the  stove  or  furnace,  it  is 
often,  as  before  remarked,  necessary  to  use 
a  jet  of  gas  or  an  Argand  lamp  to  rarefy  the 
air  in  the  flue,  and  thus  produce  an  upward 
lower  openings.  current.  No  further  explanation  is  needed 

b.  Ventiduct  for  second  story  with  upper  on  this  head,  except  to  say  that  the  jet  or 

«.  Ventiduct  for  third  story  with  upper  end  lanlP  should  be  PIaoed  m  the  aPPOr  Or  Com- 
lower  openings.  bined  part  of  the  shaft,  if  designed  to  act  on 

d.  Ejecting  cap,  crowning  the  combined  a„  the  flues  cntering  into  jt.  Jn  very  large 
shaft  which  passes  through  the  loft  to  °  ° 

a  point  above  the  roof.  buildings  a  small  close  coal  stove  is  often 

used  for  the  same  purpose;  a  lamp  or  a  flame  of  gas  being  insufficient  to 
produce  the  whole  desired  effect. 


a.  Ventiduct  for  first  story  with  upper  and 


LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION. 


187 


The  size  of  the  ventiduct  should  be  regulated  to  suit  the  size  of  the  open¬ 
ing  for  the  hot  air;  and  both  should  be  made  sufficiently  large  to  supply 
and  exhaust  an  amount  of  air  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  Pupils  who 
are  to  occupy  the  room  ventilated.  The  following  table  will  show  the  proper 
sizes : 


A  ventilating  duct  for  a  room  to  be  occupied  by 


25  Pupils,  should  be 
50  “  “ 

100  “  “ 

200  “  “ 

300  “  “ 


6  by  12 
10  by  18 
14  by  24 
18  by  30 
24  by  36 


inches  ;  when  two  are  used  in  one  room, 

a  u  u  (t 

u  u  a  u 


a  a  (4  44 

4  4  44  44  44 


6  by  8  inches. 

8  by  12  “ 

9  by  18  “ 

12  by  24  “ 

16  by  28  “ 


The  following  general  principles  may  be  educed  from  the  foregoing  re¬ 
marks  on  lighting  and  ventilation  : 

That  proper  location  and  construction  are  the  best  and  surest  reliances 
both  for  a  full  supply  of  light  and  pure  air. 

That  high  windows  and  high  ceilings  are  the  points  most  to  be  regarded 
in  the  building  of  School-houses,  to  effect  these  objects. 

That  the  position  of  the  Pupil  with  reference  to  light  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance,  and  should  be  carefully  arranged. 

That  where  encased  stoves  in  the  School,  or  furnaces  in  the  cellar  are 
relied  on  for  heating,  the  ventilating  flue  is  indispensable  for  ventilation. 

That  in  a  tight  stove-room,  some  means  to  furnish  a  supply  of  pure 
fresh  air  from  without  should  never  be  omitted. 

That  in  large  School-houses,  where  artificial  means  to  command  full  ven¬ 
tilation  at  all  times,  are  requisite,  no  plan  for  that  purpose  should  be  adopted, 
without  the  advice  of  an  experienced  architect. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


188 


VIII.  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


OR  SCHOOL  ROOM  FURNITURE,  WITH  PLATES  AND  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ITS  CONSTRUCTION 

AND  ARRANGEMENT, 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  ' 

A  very  few  years  ago  a  paragraph  or  two  on  the  furniture  —  which 
would  have  included  merely  the  benches  and  desks  —  of  a  School-house, 
would  have  been  thought  sufficient  in  a  work  on  this  subject.  Now,  so  great 
has  been  the  advance  and  the  improvement,  that  a  long  chapter  will  scarcely 
contain  all  that  ought  to  be  said. 

So  much  has  been  stated  in  every  educational  work  and  so  much  is  heard 
at  every  meeting  for  the  advancement  of  teaching,  on  the  discomforts  and 
insufficiency  of  School-room  furniture,  that  the  reader’s  time  needs  not  be 
here  occupied  on  that  branch  of  the  subject.  It  is  now  pretty  generally 
admitted  that  a  School-desk  is  not  another  name  for  a  steep  inclined  plane 
on  which  a  slate  or  a  copy  book  must  be. held  from  sliding  with  one  hand, 
while  it  is  written  on  with  the  other ;  and  that  the  seat  is  not  necessarily 
a  narrow  board,  so  high  as  to  exercise  the  Pupil’s  vaulting  powers  to  mount 
it,  yet  so  equi-distant  between  the  floor  and  the  desk,  that  while  the  Pupil’s 
feet  are  dangling  in  the  air,  his  chin  is  little  more  than  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  the  desk.  The  opinion  is  fast  gaining  ground  that  the  School  should 
be  made  as  commodious  and  attractive  as  the  home  ;  and  that  to  become  so 
it  must  have  all  the  necessary  appliances  for  comfort  as  well  as  for  study. 

This  is  not  only  a  humane  but  an  economical  and  wise  conclusion  on  the 
part  of  the  public.  Say  what  we  will  — ■  theorize  as  we  may  — ■  about  the 
value  of  learning,  .the  happiness  of  the  school  portion  of  life,  and  the  possi¬ 
ble  attractiveness  of  the  School,  —  going  to  School,  day  after  day  for  years, 
being  confined  there  away  from  sport  and  out  of  the  free  air,  and  compelled 
to  study  lessons  and  subjects,  either  beyond  the  present  grasp  of  the  mind, 
or  uninteresting  from  their  want  of  connection  with  present  feelings  and 
pursuits ;  —  all  this,  which  is  but  a  matter  of  fact  list  of  the  school  grievances 
of  the  great  majority,  forms  a  burthen  hard  enough  to  be  borne,  without 
having  added  to  it  the  tortures  of  painful  bodily  position  or  the  disgust  of 
unsightly  objects.  Common  humanity,  therefore,  would  seem  to  dictate 
that  all  necessary  and  proper  conveniences  should  be  placed  in  the  School, 
in  order  that  the  trials  and  difficulties  of  childhood  may  not  be  needlessly 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


189 


increased,  and  that  health  and  the  proper  form  and  functions  of  the  body, 
may  not  be  impaired  or  distorted. 

In  selecting  School-furniture,  the  cheapest  and  plainest  articles,  though 
of  a  requisite  size  and  form, 'will  not  always  or  even  often  be  found  the  most 
economical.  That  which  is  cheap  and  common  will  be  apt  to  receive  rough 
usage ;  while  furniture  of  a  neat  and  ornamental  description  is  not  often 
purposely  abused  or  injured. — A  School  had  been  supplied  with  desks  and 
seats  of  a  sufficiently  appropriate  form,  but  composed  of  roughly  put  together 
and  unpainted  pine  boards.  The  tops  of  the  desks  and  seats  were  so  cut 
with  knives,  furrowed  with  slate  pencils,  and  discolored  with  ink,  that  it 
was  found  necessary  to  have  them  planed  off  every  year,  and  to  renew  the 
tops  at  the  end  of  about  four  years,  in  order  to  keep  them  in  any  thing  like 
a  decent  state.  Improved  furniture,  properly  constructed  and  handsomely 
painted  and  varnished,  was  placed  in  the  same  School ;  and  now,  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  there  is  not  a  scratch  or  mark  on  any  part  of  it,  except  such 
as  are  owing  to  the  unavoidable  wear  of  daily  usage.  This  furniture  in  the 
first  instance,  cost  about  twice  as  much  as  that  which  it  superseded ;  but 
the  saving,  already,  in  the  item  of  repairs  has  nearly  paid  the  difference. 

But  the  good  effect  on  the  taste  and  habits  of  the  Pupils  is  the  great 
benefit.  The  constant  contemplation  of  agreeable  and  appropriate  objects, 
cannot  but  have  a  powerful  tendency  towards  the  formation  of  a  correct 
taste.  A  love  for  the  beautiful  —  and  things  which  are  perfectly  adapted  to 
some  useful  end  are  always  more  or  less  beautiful  —  is  a  most  desirable  and 
happy  feature  in  the  character,  and  should  be  studiously  cultivated  in  youth. 
This  should  be  a  part  of  education,  and  may  be  materially  promoted  by 
neatness  and  adaptedness  in  the  School  and  all  its  furniture  and  appliances. 
Besides,  no  one  will  deny  that  the  habit  of  destructiveness  should  be  con¬ 
trolled,  and  those  of  preservation  and  care  implanted  and  encouraged  in 
childhood.  If  fully  impressed  then,  they  will  rarely  disappear  in  after  life, 
when  discretion  shall  come  to  their  aid,  and  reason  approve  that  which  was 
previously  the  mere  result  of  surrounding  circumstances. 

For  these  reasons,  the  list  of  School  furniture  about  to  be  described  will 
not  only  be  full  and  varied  but  substantial  and  neat,  rather  than  cheap  and 
plain.  Cheapness  is  not  often  in  the  end  economy ;  nor  is  plainness  always 
productive  of  durability. 

In  reference  to  the  selection  of  plans  for  and  the  construction  of  School 
furniture,  it  is  recommended  that  Directors  and  Controllers  shall  consult 
some  experienced  practical  Teacher  on  the  subject,  and  visit  Schools  which 
contain  articles  of  an  appropriate  kind.  Having  thus  made  their  selection, 
the  furniture  should  either  be  constructed  by  some  person  engaged  in  the 
business,  or  according  to  the  plan  and  form  of  a  model  article  of  each  kind, 
procured  for  that  especial  purpose. 


190 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


For  the  arrangement  of  furniture  no  specific  directions  can  be  given 
which  will  meet  all  cases.  Most  houses  and  Schools  will  require  certain 
modifications  to  suit  local  or  peculiar  circumstances.  Here  again,  the  expe¬ 
rienced  judicious  Teacher  will  be  found  to  be  the  safest  adviser. 

There  are,  however,  certain  general  principles  both  of  construction  and 
arrangement,  governing  this  subject,  which  should  never  be  violated. 
These  will  be  indicated  in  their  proper  connections  in  this  chapter;  leaving 
details  to  the  circumstances  of  each  case. 

The  accommodations  for  a  School-house,  embraced  under  the  head  of  fur¬ 
niture,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes.  1.  Those  relating  to  the  general 
care  of  the  building,  which  chiefly  have  their  place  in  the  entry  and  clothes- 
rooms  ;  2.  Those  connected  with  the  purposes  of  the  main  or  study-room ; 
and  3.  Those  of  the  class-rooms. 

Each  of  these  will  be  described  separately,  without  going  into  minute  de¬ 
tails  as  to  the  several  grades  of  School ;  when  necessary,  however,  the  arti¬ 
cles  proper  for  the  respective  grades  will  be  specified. 

I.  ENTRY  AND  CLOTHES-ROOM  FURNITURE. 

The  Scraper  :  The  space  immediately  in  front  of  every  School-house 
should  be  paved  with  brick  or  stone,  covered  with  plank,  or  the  surface,  by 
some  other  appropriate  means,  rendered  smooth  and  so  hard  as  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  rain  and  frost.  On  this  space  the  steps  or  platform  leading 
to  the  door  will  be  placed,  and  either  will  be  incomplete  without  a  strong 
convenient  shoe -scraper  at  each  side.  Two  will  be  required,  for  the  reason, 
that  the  Pupils  enter  the  School,  morning  and  afternoon,  about  the  same 
time,  and  if  there  be  only  one  scraper,  it  will  either  cause  delay  or  compel 
some  to  enter  the  building  with  soiled  shoes.  Cleanliness  and  neatness 
are  amougst  the  cardinal  virtues  of  the  School-room ;  and  every  means  of 
inculcating  and  promoting  them  should  receive  the  earliest  and  most  con¬ 
stant  attention. 

The  Mat  :  After  the  rougher  and  heavier  portion  of  the  mud  has  been 
scraped  from  the  feet,  a  good  rubbing  on  a  coarse  mat  will  not  only  remove 
the  balance,  but  aid  in  drying  the  shoes,  so  that  there  will  be  less  danger 
from  wet  and  damp  feet,  than  would  be  experienced  without  this  precau¬ 
tion.  In  addition  to  this,  there  will  thus  be  less  of  that  annoying  dust  in 
the  School-room,  which,  when  present  in  large  quantities,  is  constantly  kept 
afloat  in  the  air,  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the  inmates  and  to  the  injury  of 
clothes,  books  and  lungs.  A  pair  of  mats,  or  two  pair  in  a  large  School,  to 
be  used  alternately  —  one  to  be  dried  and  beaten  free  of  dust,  while  the 
other  is  in  use  —  may  be  made  of  corn-husks  or  straw.  If  the  Teacher 
manage  properly,  mats,  quite  sufficient  tor  the  purpose,  will  be  readily  made 
or  provided  by  the  larger  Pupils  in  turn,  if  they  can  be  had  in  no  other 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


191 


way.  These  rough  mats  should  be  placed  just  inside  the  main  entrance 
door ;  and  if  the  female  Pupils  were  to  prepare  a  rag  mat  to  be  laid  inside 
of  or  near  the  door  leading  from  the  entry  or  vestibule  into  the  School-room, 
for  a  second  wiping  of  the  feet,  the  precautions  against  dust  in  the  room 
would  be  complete.  The  use  of  the  scraper  and  mat  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  rigidly  insisted  on,  and  every  Pupil  entering  with  soiled  feet  be  sent  back 
and  made  to  clean  them. 

The  Wash-basin  :  Children  often  soil  their  hands  in  play,  and  some  even 
come  to  School  with  unwashed  hands  and  faces  and  uncombed  hair.  Such 
should  never  be  permitted  to  enter  the  School-room,  till  all  the  requirements 
of  outward  decency  are  complied  with.  In  the  country  it  will  generally  be 
too  far  to  send  them  home  again  for  the  purpose  ;  and  therefore  preparation 
for  it  should  be  found  in  the  School.  Hence,  a  tin  basin  on  a  shelf  in  the 
corner  of  the  entry  of  a  small  School,  a  wash-stand  in  a  larger  building,  or 
a  regular  wash-closet  in  one  of  the  highest  class,  becomes  proper.  Soap 
and  towels  will  also  be  indispensable ;  and  if  not  provided  by  the  District, 
they  should  be  by  the  Pupils,  for  whose  use  and  benefit  they  are  alone 
needed. 

Buckets:  Every  School  should  have  two  buckets  —  one  for  drinking 
water  with  cup  near  it,  and  one  for  washing  and  scrubbing  purposes. 

Broom  and  Brushes  :  No  School  however  small  or  plain,  should  be  without 
a  broom  for  sweeping  the  floor  at  least  twice  a  week,  and  if  daily,  the  better. 
Large  buildings  should  also  have  a  hair  sweeping  or  floor  brush,  and  a  cob¬ 
web  brush  or  ceiling  duster  with  a  long  handle.  To  this  list  should  also 
be  added  a  scrubbing  brush  for  the  floor  and  a  white-wash  brush  for  the 
walls ;  and  the  more  they  are  all  used,  the  better  for  the  health  and  habits 
of  the  Pupils. 

Umbrella  Stand  :  In  wet  weather  the  entry,  or  the  corners  of  the  School¬ 
room,  are  often  flooded  with  the  drippings  of  umbrellas.  The  one-half  of 
a  water-tight  barrel  placed  in  one  corner  of  the  entry,  would  receive  the 
umbrellas  of  the  whole  School,  and  prevent  this  annoyance.  In  the  larger 
Schools  something  more  complete  should  be  found.  A  water-tight  trough 
one  foot  wide  and  one  foot  deep,  and  two,  three  or  four  feet  long,  according 
to  circumstances,  painted  inside  and  out,  with  four  legs  a  foot  high,  and  a 
guard  or  slat  around  it  about  one  foot  above  the  top  edge  for  the  umbrellas 
to  lean  against,  would  be  a  neat  article  of  furniture,  cost  but  little  and  con¬ 
tain  a  large  number  of  umbrellas.  There  should  also  be  a  hole  in  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  it,  with  a  cork,  to  run  off  the  collected  water  into  a  bucket. 

Fire-irons:  If  the  School  is  heated  by  means  of  a  wood  stove,  a  pair  of 
tongs  and  a  fire-shovel,  with  an  ash-bucket  or  pan,  will  be  indispensable. 
If  coal  is  used,  a  pair  of  tongs  will  also  be  necessary,  with  a  small  shovel 


192 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


and  a  poker,  a  coal  scuttle  and  a  sieve  for  the  cinders.  In  both  cases  an 
axe  and  a  saw  to  cut  the  wood  or  the  kindling,  will  also  be  needed. 

Clothes-Hooks  :  In  all  new  School-houses  enough  of  these  to  allow  one 
for  each  pupil,  should  be  embraced  in  the  contract  for  building.  In  old 
houses  they  should  be  at  once  put  up.  One  should  be  assigned  to  each 
Pupil  and  each  should  be  induced  or  compelled  to  use  his  or  her  own. 
There  is  a  very  cheap  kind  of  cast  iron  hooks  which  are  rarely  worth  the 
trouble  of  fastening  to  the  wall.  They  break  off  with  the  slightest  degree 
of  strain.  The  better  kind  should  be  procured,  or  wooden  pins,  well  slanted 
upwards,  should  be  used. 

Dinner  Closet  :  In  the  country  many  Pupils,  living  at  a  distance,  neces¬ 
sarily  bring  their  dinners  with  them,  and  require  a  safe  and  fit  place  for  it, 
during  the  forenoon.  A  closet,  with  a  lock  and  key  should  be  placed  in 

the  entry  or  clot  lies- room  for  this  purpose.  When 
this  is  done,  the  closet  should  be  locked  by  one  of  the 
Pupils,  appointed  for  that  purpose,  after  all  are  in. 
Thus  the  baskets  will  be  properly  and  safely  kept, 
and  the  untidy  practice  of  having  them  standing  un¬ 
der  the  desks  or  along  the  walls  in  the  School-room, 
avoided.  This  will  also  prevent  those  liberties  being 
taken  with  the  dinner  baskets,  by  mischievous  Pu¬ 
pils  while  passing  out  and  in  during  School  hours, 
which  often  create  disturbance,  when  the  baskets 
are  left  in  the  clothes-room  without  being  locked  up.  The  above  plate 
represents  a  closet,  the  lower  part  of  which  with  tvro  shelves,  would  serve 
to  hold  the  dinner  baskets,  and  the  upper  part  be  very  convenient  and 
suitable  for  a  small  library  or  for  apparatus. 

Mode  of  obtaining  these  articles  :  Several  of  the  articles  just  named  are 
indispensable  and  will  not  be  refused  by  any  Board  of  Directors.  Others 
may  be.  In  that  case,  it  will  be  in  the  power  of  the  Teacher,  by  showing 
a  disposition  to  keep  the  School-house  in  good  order  and  condition,  and  by 
a  respectful  representation  of  the  utility  and  necessity  of  additional  articles, 
to  induce  a  reasonable  Board  to  allow  them.  If  not,  he  has  the  Pupils  to 
appeal  to.  By  proper  explanation  of  the  uses  and  value  of  the  desired 
conveniences,  and  of  the  habits  dependent  on  them,  he  will  rarely  fail  in 
creating  such  a  feeling  in  the  School,  as  will  supply  all  that  is  requisite, 
till  the  Directors  shall  discover  their  own  duty  in  the  matter. 

Mode  of  using  these  articles  :  Most  of  them,  such  as  scrapers,  mats,  ba¬ 
sins,  buckets}  fire-irons,  clothes-hooks  and  dinner  closets,  are  in  daily  use, 
and  only  require  a  little  constant  attention  on  the  part  of  the  Teacher,  to 
render  them  greatly  promotive  of  the  neatness  and  good  condition  of  the 
School,  and  of  the  formation  of  right  habits.  But  others,  such  as  brooms, 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


193 


siveeping  brashes,  scrubbing  aid  cob-web  brushes,  an<3  above  all  white¬ 
wash  brushes,  only  come  into  use  occasionally,  and  will  require  an  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  Teacher  to  develop  their  full  use  and  value.  But  this 
effort,  if  properly  made,  will  be  its  own  reward.  If  the  larger  Pupils  be 
requested  to  meet  the  Teacher  in  the  School-house  during  a  Saturday  fore¬ 
noon  once  a  month,  or  even  every  six  weeks,  for  a  general  sweeping,  scrub¬ 
bing,  and,  if  necessary,  white-washing,  the  effect  on  the  School  —  both  per¬ 
sonal  and  material  —  will  be  found  most  salutary,  and  the  object  will  be 
accomplished.  Children  like  to  feel  themselves  of  use  to  those  whom  they 
respect,  and,  if  properly  governed,  the}7  delight  in  improving  their  own 
things.  The  Teacher  is  their  best  friend  and  the  School  is  their  own. 
Their  nature  will  incline  them,  if  it  be  properly  guided,  to  oblige  the  one 
and  beautify  the  other. 

In  addition  to  this  thorough  cleansing,  there  should  be  a  general  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  books,  apparatus,  furniture,  &c.,  of  the  School-room  every  Fri¬ 
day  afternoon,  before  dismissal  for  the  week. 

II.  STUDY-ROOM  FURNITURE. 

Seats  and  Desks  :  These  constitute  the  main  portion  of  the  furniture  of 
the  room,  and  upon  their  form,  construction  and  arrangement,  will  depend 
much  of  the  comfort  of  the  Pupils  and  the  order  of  the  School. 

Certain  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at  with  reference  to  seats  and 
desks,  by  the  experience  of  well  conducted  Schools,  which  may  now  be  ad¬ 
mitted  as  settled  principles  applicable  to  all  Schools.  These  are  :  1.  That 
every  Pupil  whether  old  or  young,  should  have  a  desk  as  well  as  a  seat ; 
2.  That  both  should  be  made  as  comfortable  and  as  well  adapted  to  their 
object  as  possible;  3.  That  the  seats  and  desks  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
permit  each  Pupil  to  pass  to  and  from  his  own,  without  disturbing  any  other 
in  so  doing.  To  these  may  be  added,  4.  That  the  more  neatly  and  sub¬ 
stantially  the  seats  and  desks  are  made  at  first,  the  longer  they  will  last, 
and  the  greater  will  be  the  saving  to  the  District  in  the  end. 

The  desk  is  as  necessary  for  young  as  for  older  Pupils,  for  several  rea¬ 
sons.  Children  should  not  be  long  confined  to  one  attitude,  —  frequent 
change  of  position  seeming  to  be  a  want  of  their  nature.  After  sitting  upright 
in  their  seats  for  some  time,  they  soon  lean  on  the  back  of  the  chair  or 
bench  ;  but  this  posture  before  long  also  becomes  irksome,  and  they  will  be 
observed  to  lean  sideways  upon  each  other.  At  this  time,  it  is,  that  rest¬ 
lessness  and  disorder  begin  to  manifest  themselves  amongst  the  younger 
Pupils,  and  at  this  time  the  forward  support  afforded  by  the  desk,  both  for 
the  person  and  the  book,  would  form  a  relief  to  the  Scholars,  and  tend  to 
the  quiet  of  the  School.  Moreover,  it  is  now  admitted  by  all  good  Teach- 
25 


194 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


ers  that  the  slate  and  pencil  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every  Pupil 
the  very  first  day  of  his  entrance  into  School ;  and  this  renders  a  desk  in¬ 
dispensable,  if  there  were  no  other  reason. 

To  render  the  seat  and  desk  comfortable  and  convenient,  both  should 
bear  a  proper  proportion  in  height  and  form,  to  the  size  of  the  Pupil ;  so 
that  when  seated,  his  feet  should  rest  firmly  on  the  floor,  and  his  arms 
should  have  easy  action  on  the  desk,  without  either  raising  them  above  the 
proper  level  for  free  use,  or  compelling  him  to  stoop  so  as  improperly  to 
bend  the  body  and  contract  the  chest.  The  seat  should  in  all  cases  have  a 
comfortable  back,  and  be  slightly  higher  before  than  behind,  so  as  to  give 
a  firm  position  to  the  person  upon  it.  The  desk,  being  designed  to  retain 
the  books  or  slate  without  the  necessity  of  holding  them  upon  it  with  the 
hand  to  prevent  them  from  sliding  off,  should  be  very  slightly  inclined  from 
front  to  rear,  with  a  level  space  at  the  extreme  rear  for  pencils,  pens,  &c. 
Some  intelligent  Teachers  prefer  perfectly  horizontal  desks ;  but  though  it 
is  true,  that  in  after  life  most  writing  is  done  on  a  horizontal  surface,  }'et 
the  practice  of  ages  and  that  of  professional  writers  at  the  present  time, 
seem  to  be  in  favor  of  the  slanting  desk. 

It  needs  no  argument  to-  show  that  every  Pupil  should  have  free  access 
to  his  own  seat.  This  is  generally  admitted  with  regard  to  the  older 
Scholars;  but  it  is  equally  if  not  more  requisite,  in  the  case  of  the  younger, 
who  are  more  uneasy  and  require  to  leave  their  places  more  frequently. 
This  object  can  only  be  effected  by  the  use  of  single  or  at  most  double 
desks —  that  is  desks  at  which  no  more  than  two  Pupils  sit.  The  former 
would  be  the  more  desirable  in  all  cases ;  but  as  they  occupy  too  much 
floor  space,  when  arranged  with  a  passage  at  each  end,  the  double  desk  is 
now  in  use  in  all,  except  the  highest  grade  of  Schools. 

The  good  effects  of  neat  substantial  furniture  have  been  already  ex¬ 
plained,  and  need  not  be  further  insisted  on. 

Seats  and  Desks  for  Primary  Pupils:  Various  kinds  are  now  in  use  for 
this  class  of  Pupils ;  all  seeking  to  unite  comfort  with  neatness  and  dura¬ 
bility.  The  combined  seat  and  desk  represented 
by  the  cut  in  the  margin,  seems  to  comprise  all 
these  requisites.  The  legs  or  stanchions  are  of. 
cast  iron  and  the  remainder  of  wood.  The  seat 
of  one  pair  of  Pupils  is  connected  with  the  desk 
of  the  pair  behind  them,  but  the  whole  being 
firmly  secured  to  the  floor,  will  not  be  liable  to 
shake,  so  as  to  cause  disturbance  to  either.  Properly  constructed  and  hand¬ 
somely  painted,  this  would  form  a  neat  as  well  as  comfortable  article  of  fur¬ 
niture. 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


195 


Another  kind  composed  wholly  of  wood  is  now  much  in  use ;  and  when 

neatly  made  and  painted,  serves  the  pur¬ 
pose  and  looks  well.  The  seat  as  shown 
in  the  cut  is  movable,  but  it  may  be  united 
with  the  desk  behind,  which  is  fast  to  the 
floor,  somewhat  like  that  in  the  preceding 
cut.  Connected  in  this  manner,  this  seat 
and  desk  are  more  in  use  in  the  interior  of 

the  State  than  any  other. 

The  next  form  shows  not  only  a  double 
desk,  but  a  double  seat ;  the  stanchion  of 
the  seat  being  of  iron,  and  those  of  the 
desk  wood,  and  both  fast  to  the  floor.  The 
double  seat  will  probably  be  found  not  so 
desirable~as  single  ones,  as  it  will  not  sepa¬ 
rate  the  two  Pupils.  Either  of  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  forms  of  chair  would,  probably,  be 
preferable  to  the  settee  or  double  seat. 

They  will  both  present  easier  supports  to  the  back,  and  that  on  the  right  has 
the  additional  quality  of  revolving,  so  as  to  admit  of 
greater  variety  of  posture,  and  of  readier  egress  and 
regress.  If,  instead  of  wooden 
supports,  the  desk  were  made  with 
plain  cast-iron  stanchions,  as  in 
some  of  the  succeeding  cuts,  either 
of  these  seats  with  such  a  desk, 
would  be  plain  and  substantial,  yet  attractive  in  appearance  and  comforta¬ 
ble. 

Grammar  School  Seats  and  Desks  :  Though  the  double  seat  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  double  desk,  is  yet  used  in 
some  Schools  of  the  second  grade,  yet 
the  inclination  is  general  in  favor  of  the 
single  seat.  The  one  now  presented 
seems  to  be  desirable  in  every  respect, 
except  that  the  chair  does  not  revolve ; 
some  teachers  preferring  the  stationary 
or  unrevolving  seat.  The  next  cut 
shows  a  seat  and  desk  differing  much  in  form,  yet  the  same  in  principle  as 
the  last,  except  that  the  desk  has  an  enclosed  box  covered  with  a  hinged 
lid,  for  each  Pupil.  Some  teachers  prefer  this  arrangement,  but  the  ma¬ 
jority  do  not  favor  it,  as  the  raising  of  the  lid  interposes  a  screen  between 


19G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  Teacher  and  Pupil,  behind  which 
acts  may  be  performed  which  would 
not  be  openly  attempted;  while  the 
opening  and  shutting  of  the  lids  cannot 
but  create  noise.  The  desk  with  a  sta¬ 
tionary  lid,  a  shelf  beneath,  and  a  slit 
in  the  back  for  a  slate,  seems  to  meet 
the  views  of  the  greater  number  of 
teachers. 

In  connection  with  either  of  these  Grammar  School  desks,  a  revolving 
chair,  one  of  which  is  shown  among  the  High  School  seats,  may  be  used; 
and  if  properly  constructed,  it  will  be  found  easy  and  pleasant. 

High  School  Seats  and  Desks  :  The  furniture  for  the  High  School  will 
necessarily  be  larger,  and  generally  of  a  more  elaborate  style  and  better 
finish  than  that  of  the  lower  grades.  Whenever  floor  space  will  allow, 
none  but  single  seats 
and  desks  should  be 
used ;  but  if  the  dou¬ 
ble  kind  is  to  be 
adopted,  the  oppo¬ 
site  cut  represents  a 
beautiful  and  appro¬ 
priate  form.  The 
desk  is  large  and 
capacious,  and  its 
stanchions  are  so 
well  thrown  back  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  knee  in  passing  to  and  from 
the  seat. 

The  single  seat  and  desk  shown 
by  the  opposite  cut,  is  of  similar 
style,  and  intended  for  the  same 
grade  of  School  as  the  last.  It  has 
a  lid  or  fall  to  the  desk,  a  stationary 
seat,  and  seems  to  afford  ample  room 
to  the  occupant,  and  great  con¬ 
venience  for  study  and  the  other 
duties  of  the  School.  It  is  strong 
and  durable,  as  well  as  beautiful  in 
appearance. 

The  last  that  will  be  presented  is  one  which  has  been  in  use  in  the  Lan¬ 
caster  city  High  School  for  the  last  four  years,  and  given  satisfaction.  The 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


197 


desk  has  no  lid,  but  an  open  shelf  below  for  books,  with  a  slit  in  the  back  part 
for  the  slate.  Both  the  stanchions  of 
the  desk  and  the  base  of  the  chair  are 
of  cast  iron,  screwed  to  the  floor.  The 
box  forming  the  desk  is  attached  to  the 
stanchions  bj  the  four  light  bolts, 
passing  from  the  top  of  the  box  through 
the  heads  of  the  stanchions,  and  se¬ 
cured  by  a  nut  and  screw  beneath ; 
the  head  of  the  bolt  being  let  into  the 
desktop  and  covered  with  putty  before 
painting.  The  seat  and  back  of  the  chair  are  precisely  those  of  the  com¬ 
mon  Windsor  chair,  which  the  Pupil  uses  at  home.  On  the  bottom  of  the 
seat,  a  pivot  of  wrought  iron  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  byjdiree 
inches  in  length,  inserted  in  a  cast  iron 
plate  four  inches  square  and  three-eights 
of  an  inch  thick,  is  fastened  by  means  of 
four  one  inch  screws.  This  pivot  plays 
into  a  corresponding  socket  in  the  head 
of  the  cast  iron  base ;  the  top  of  the  base 
being  slightly  rounded,  or  convex,  to  al¬ 
low  a  small  degree  of  rocking  motion  and  make  the  chair  revolve  easily.  A 
piece  of  leather  is  put  on  the  pivot  to  prevent  noise  in  revolving.  The  chair 
is  not  fastened  to  the  base,  but  may  be  lifted  off  when  the  room  is  to  be 
swept  or  scrubbed.  Desk  stanchions  and  chair  bases  of  four  different 
heights,  each  in  succession  one  inch  higher  than  the  other,  are  made  to 
suit  the  different  sizes  of  the  Pupils. 

This  seat  and  desk  have  been  somewhat  fully  described,  because  they  are 
not  generally  known,  neither  are  they  subject  to  any  patent  right.  A  claim 
of  this  kind  is  made  with  regard  to  the  most  of  the  other  improved  articles 
of  School  furniture,  and  whether  it  exists  in  reality  or  not,  Directors  are 
often  made  to  pay  patent  right  price  when  they  purchase. 

Relative  sizes  of  Seats  and  Desks:  The  following  table  is  said  to  show 
pretty  accurately  the  proportion  which  should  exist  between  the  heights  of 
seats  and  desks  for  the  various  sizes  of  Pupils ;  the  corresponding  width  and 
length  of  the  desks ;  and  the  proper  distances  between  desks  of  the  same 
size  in  the  same  row,  so  as  to  admit  the  chair  between  them. 


Height  of  seat.  Height  of  front  of  desk.  Width  of  desk. 

10  inches.  21  inches.  12  inches. 

12  “  23  “  13  “ 

14  «  25  “  14  “ 

16  “  27  «  15  “ 


Length  of  desk  per 
Pupil. 

17  inches. 
19  “ 

21  « 

22  « 


Chair  space  be¬ 
tween  desks. 

20  inches. 
22  “ 

24  “ 

26  “ 


198 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Ink  well  :  The  ink-stand  or  well  is  an  indispensable  accompaniment 
of  the  desk  and,  if  not  of  a  proper  form  or  properly  secured,  often  gives 
much  trouble.  A  loose  ink-stand  or  bottle  on  a  small  desk,  the  greater 
|  part  of  whose  lid  is  considerably  inclined,  is  liable  to 
|  be  upset  or  thrown  off.  A  wide  mouthed  glass  cup  with 
p>  a  rim  to  it,  and  let  into  the  corner  of  the  desk,  is  se¬ 
cured  from  falling  or  upsetting,  but  receives  the  dust  of 
the  room  to  the  injury  of  the  ink.  Hence,  one  let  into 
the  desk,  with  a  hinged  lid  or  cover,  so  arranged  as  to 
exclude  the  dust  and  yet  not  to  be  in  the  way  of  books, 
slates,  &c.,  when  closed,  seems  to  be  the  best  and  cheapest 
expedient  that  can  be  adopted.  Many  wells  have  been 
prepared  for  these  purposes.  The  figure  in  the  margin  will  serve  to  con¬ 
vey  the  idea,  without  further  explanation. 

Arrangement  of  Seats  and  Desks:  It  has  already  been  frequently  sug¬ 
gested,  that,  in  arranging  the  furniture  of  a  School-room,  the  Pupils  should 
be  faced  towards  a  wall  containing  no  windows,  or,  if  any,  that  they  should 
have  close  blinds  or  curtains;  and  that  if  possible  this  should  be  the  north 
wall.  It  is  also  believed  that  the  Teacher’s  platform  and  desk  should  be 
across  the  end  and  not  the  side  of  the  room ;  thus  throwing  the  whole  of 
the  Pupils  more  in  front  of  him. 

If  the  entrance  door  be  in  the  middle  of  the  partition  opposite  the 
Teacher’s  desk,  then  there  should  be  one  passage  from  that  door  to  his  desk, 
along  the  middle  of  the  room,  considerably  wider  than  the  other  ones,  as 
on  the  ground  plan  on  page  30.  If  there  be  two  entrance  doors  into 
the  School-room,  there  should  be  two  such  wider  passages,  as  in  the 
plan  on  page  32 ;  or,  the  two  wider  passages  may  be  next  the  walls,  as 
in  pages  42  and  62.  If  black-board  or  maps  are  on  the  side- walls,  this 
last  arrangement  will  have  the  additional  advantage  of  giving  better  ac¬ 
cess  to  them. 

The  main  passages  should  not  be  less  than  three  feet  wide,  if  floor  space 
permit  ;  and  if  they  can  be  four,  it  will  be  all  the  better.  The  other  pas¬ 
sages  may  vary  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  and  a-half  feet. 

The  distances  between  the  desks  in  the  same  row  tor  the  seats  have  al¬ 
ready  been  given,  in  the  table  on  page  197 ;  but  if  space  will  at  all  admit 
of  it,  there  should  be  one  or  two  cross  passages,  (that  is  from  east  to  west, 
if  the  Pupils  face  to  the  north,)  in  order  to  permit  the  Teacher  to  pass  from 
one  row  of  desks  to  another,  without  being  compelled  to  walk  to  either  end 
of  the  room. 

In  all  Schools,  but  especially  in  those  of  mixed  studies  and  ages,  there 
should  be  seats  and  desks  of  different  heights  to  suit  the  respective  sizes  of 
the  Pupils.  In  such  cases  the  smaller  seats  for  the  younger  Pupils  should 


school  Furniture, 


199 


be  placed  in  front,  —  that  is  nearest  the  Teacher’s  desk,  —  in  order  to  have 
them  more  under  his  eye  and  control. 

Seats  and  desks  should  never  be  allowed  to  touch  the  wall.  If  the  size 
of  the  room  will  not  allow  a  full  passage  next  the  wall,  the  desk  should  be 
kept  at  least  six  inches  from  it,  both  to  allow  the  Pupil  near  it  the  free  use 
of  his  arm,  and  to  keep  him  from  contact  with  the  damp  cold  wall. 

The  following  plate  represents  a  new  mode  of  arranging  seats  and  desks, 
intended  to  save  floor  space  without  the  use  of  the  double  desk.  If  found 
satisfactory  in  other  respects,  it  will  have  the  additional  advantage  of  al¬ 
lowing  more  room  for  passages,  and  particularly  for  a  wide  middle  passage, 
and  for  outside  passages  along  the  walls.  The  dividing  or  partition  board 
seems  liable  to  the  objection  of  somewhat  interfering  with  the  arm  in 
writing,  unless  the  top  of  the  desk  be  very  large.  * 


“  The  engraving  represents  the  plan  so  plainly,  that  very  little  more  is 
required  to  be  said  respecting  it. 

“  By  this  new  arrangement  two  rows  of  desks  are  combined  together, 

*  This  is  the  invention  of  Virgil  Woodcock,  of  Swanzey,  New  Hampshire,  to  whom  a  patent  has 
heen  recently  granted.  The  Editor  has  never  seen  in  use,  and  only  inserts  it  here  to  add  to  the 
interest  and  variety  of  the  work.  The  descriptive  part,  marked  as  quotation,  is  from  Mr.  Woodcock’s 
circular. 


200 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


with  a  separating  partition  between  them  ;  or,  with  a  standard  at  each  end, 
the  partition  may  be  dispensed  with.  Two  rows  of  desks,  A  A  and  C  C, 
are  shown,  connected  to  each  partition  board,  D.  The  Teacher’s  desk  is 
represented  at  E  ;  B  are  the  seats  of  the  scholars  at  the  desks;  a  a  are 
the  desk  standards.  Each  Scholar’s  desk  is  arranged  opposite  the  seat  space 
ot  the  opposite  Scholar,  thus  separating  them,  and  preventing  playing  and 
whispering. 

“By  this  arrangement  as  many  Scholars  can  be  seated  at  single  as  at 
double  desks,  and  they  will  only  occupy  the  same  floor  room.  There  is  also 
a  gain  over  single  desks  as  arranged  in  the  common  way  in  Schools,  by 
seating  forty-eight  Scholars,  with  these  desks,  in  the  same  space  as  thirty- 
six  are  commonly  seated.  The  desks  and  chairs  are  arranged  diagonally 
on  the  floor,  so  that  no  one  Scholar  can  see  the  face  of  another  without  one 
of  the  two  being  at  right  or  left  half  face.  When  the  School  is  called  to 
procession,  all  can  rise  at  once,  and  step  into  files  in  the  aisles,  without 
coming  in  contact  with  one  another.  Scholars  are  more  directly  under 
view  of  the  Teacher,  and  can  therefore  be  kept  in  better  order.” 

Class-space:  In  a  School-house  without  recitation  rooms,  or  with  but  one 
Teacher,  a  sufficient  space  in  front  of  the  platform,  for  classes  during  reci¬ 
tation,  will  be  indispensable.  It  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  after  making 
full  allowance  for  the  necessary  passages.  The  full  breadth  of  the  room 
should  be  allowed  for  this  purpose  if  practicable ;  if  not,  the  side  rows  of 
seats  may  be  extended  forward,  as  on  page  32,  leaving  the  middle  space,  at 
least,  open. 

This  brings  up  the  question  of  class  seats.  If  any  be  used,  they  should 
be  movable  settees  with  backs,  so  as  to  afford  a  support  to  the  Pupils,  and 
be  removable  to  one  side  when  not  required.  But  probably  it  would  be 
better  to  dispense  with  recitation  seats  entirely,  except  in  recitation  rooms. 
To  stand  during  a  half  hour’s  recitation,  is  but  a  healthful  and  pleasant  re¬ 
lief  from  the  tedious  and  tiresome  sittings  of  the  School-room.  Besides 
this,  reading  and  all  kinds  of  recitation  are  better  and  more  spiritedly  per¬ 
formed  in  a  standing  than  in  a  sitting  position.  A  more  dull  and  lifeless 
scene  can  scarcely  be  presented,  than  that  of  a  sitting  or  rather  lolling  class, 
making  believe  to  recite  to  a  sitting  book  teacher. 

Platform  :  In  all  contracts  for  the  erection  of  School-houses,  the  platform 
should  be  included,  and  it  should  be  ample  and  substantial.  The  north  end 
of  the  main  room  has  frequently  been  pointed  out  as  the  most  desirable 
situation  ;  but  this  will  depend  on  the  position  of  the  house  and  of  the  win¬ 
dows.  The  platform  should  extend  across  the  whole  end  or  side  of  the 
room  where  it  is  placed,  if  not  curtailed  by  doors;  and  it  should  be  one  full 
etep  higher  than  the  floor,  but  probably  two  steps  will  be  found  equally 
useful  for  ordinary  purposes,  and  more  so  in  times  of  declamation,  exhibi- 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


201 


tion,  &c.  Across  each  end  of,  and  upon  the  platform,  will  be  an  appropriate 
place  for  two  standing  closets,  one  for  apparatus,  and  the  other  for  a  library, 
if  no  room  he  specially  provided  for  those  purposes.  This  part  of  the  wall, 
as  it  does  not  face  the  School,  will  not  be  so  desirable  for  a  black-board  as 
the  cross  wah,  and  c^pi  be  more  readily  dispensed  with  for  closets,  than  any 
other.  No  platform  should  be  narrower  than  four  feet,  but  five  would  be 
better,  and  six  ample  for  all  purposes. 

Teacher’s  Desk  :  The  old  fashioned  “  Master’s  desk,”  —  without  drawer, 
but  with  a  deep  box,  covered  with  a  lid  and  filled  with  every  supposable 
article,  from  old  pens,  old  rods  and  forfeited  marbles,  apples,  tops  and  cakes, 
taken  up  for  being  handled  in  School  time,  to  keys  of  arithmetic  and  gram¬ 
mar,  for  the  master’s  own  use  and  comfort,  never  openly  handled  but  often 
consulted  under  cover  of  the  friendly  desk  lid  —  is  now  rarely  seen.  In 
its  place,  convenient  and  handsome  desks  often  grace  the  platforms.  These 
not  only  ornament  the  School-room  and  add  dignity  to  the  Teacher’s  posi¬ 
tion,  but  conduce  to  his  efficiency  and  comfort,  by  enabling  him  to  have  a 
place  for  all  the  necessary  aids  to  his  calling,  and  to  find  each  of  them  with¬ 
out  confusion  or  delay  when  required. 

Many  forms  of  Teacher’s  desks 
are  in  use.  Any  of  them  will  do, 
if  it  have  the  following  qualities : 
1.  A  large  level  table-like  surface 
on  the  top,  not  less  than  two  and  a 
half  wide  by  five  feet  long,  with  a 
ledge  not  higher  than  two  or  three 
inches  at  each  end  and  the  back, 
and  a  movable  inclined  surface  for  writing  on,  if  desired.  If  the  ledge  is 
higher,  it  will  interfere  with  the  Teacher’s  view  of  a  class  in  front  of  him, 
and  may  impede  the  Pupils’  view  of  articles  or  experiments  when  exhibited 
on  the  desk ;  and  the 
inclined  writing  surface 
should  be  movable,  to 
leave  the  whole  desk-top 
free  for  similar  occasions. 

2.  It  should  have  no  deep 
box, covered  with  a  lid, but 
side  drawers  or  shelves 
with  doors,  or  both,  al¬ 
ways  accessible  without 
disturbingthe  articles  ne¬ 
cessarily  placed  on  the  top.  The  first  here  shown  is  a  neat  desk,  but  has 
2G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


202 


no  shelves.  The  next  excels  it  in  having  shelves  on  one  side  and  drawers 
on  the  other,  and  at  the  top ;  but  fails  in  having  the  whole  top  inclined, 
which  interferes  much  with  its  usefulness  as  a  table  or  stand,  for  the  ex¬ 
hibition  of  experiments,  specimens,  &c. 

The  large  desk  now  shown  seems  to  combine  all  t^e  desirable  qualities, 

except  the  ledge  at  the  ends  and  back. 


The  first  cut  exhibits  the  front  view, 
with  a  fiat  table  surface ;  a  long  shal¬ 
low  drawer  at  the  top  for  School-reg¬ 
ister  and  class-rolls ;  six  side  drawers 
for  pens,  books,  instruments  and  arti¬ 
cles  prepared  for  use,  &c.  ;  and  suffi¬ 
cient  space  for  the  Teacher’s  feet.  The  next  cut  shows  the  movable  wri¬ 
ting  desk  or  surface,  to  be  set  aside  when  not  in  use.  The  last  exhibits 
the  back  view  —  that  is  the  one  tow¬ 
ard  the  School — of  the  same  desk,  with 

a  longshallow 
drawer  on  the 


top  for  maps, 
and  shelved  closets  below,  for  apparatus 
and  other  matters  necessary  to  be  with¬ 
in  reach  of  the  Teacher. 

These  large  and  capacious,  but  somewhat  cumbrous  articles,  should  only 
be  placed  in  Schools  where  there  is  not  a  good  provision  of  closets  and 

cases  for  apparatus ;  and,  when  adop¬ 
ted,  should  have  castors  to  them,  to 
enable  them  to  be  wheeled  to  one 
side  at  times  of  exhibition,  &c.  In 
Schools  having  plenty  of  closets  for 
apparatus,  collections,  &c.,  a  lighter 
article,  such  as  that  opposite,  will  be 
found  to  answer  all  the  daily  occa¬ 
sions  of  the  School,  and  to  be  more  readily  movable  and  less  costly.  Even 
a  common  ledged  table,  with  one  large  drawer,  may  be  sufficient  in  such 
cases. 

Teacher’s  Chair  :  The  platform  should  have  at  least  one  large  comfort¬ 
able  and  sedate  looking  chair ;  not  that  the  chair,  or  the  desk,  or  any  other 
part  of  the  School-room  furniture  or  apparatus,  will  supply  any  defect  in 
the  Teacher;  but  every  proper  means  should  be  adopted  to  add  to  the  de¬ 
cencies  of  his  position,  and  the  dignity  of  his  office.  Two  chairs  are  here 
shown;  the  only  difference  being,  that  one  has  a  cushion,  and  the  other 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


203 


has  not.  The  cushion  will  do  no  harm,  if  not  too  much  used.  The  stand¬ 
ing,  moving  instructor,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  best  instructor.  The  plat¬ 
form  should  also  have  a  half  dozen  other  chairs  for  visitors,  and  particu¬ 
larly  for  the  Board  of  Directors,  who,  when 
they  visit  the  School, jshould  always,  during 
at  least  a  portion  of  their  stay,  appear  on 
the  platform,  and  be  seen  and  known  in 
their  official  character.  Children  are  natu¬ 
rally  inclined  to  be  much  influenced  by  the 
presence  of  those  in  authority ;  and  it  is 
a  great  error  in  any  system  for  the  education  of  a  people,  whose  laws  and 
the  agents  of  whose  laws  depend  wholly  on  voluntary  obedience,  to  wea¬ 
ken  —  or  rather,  not  to  strengthen  —  this  right  feeling.  Slavish  maii- 
worship  is  as  despicable,  as  rude  disregard  for  legitimate  authority  is  dan¬ 
gerous.  The  salutary  habit  of  respect  for  the  law  and  its  officers,  will  not 
only  be  strengthend  by  the  official  reception  and  presence  of  School  Direc¬ 
tors,  but  the  Teacher  will  find  his  heart  cheered  and  his  hands  strengthened 
by  their  frequency.  When  it  is  known  that  this  is  a  matter  of  periodical 
recurrence,  it  will  be  expected  and  prepared  for ;  and  when  the  rules  of  the 
School  are  understood  to  emanate  from  other  authority,  and  their  results  to 
be  reported  to  another  tribunal,  parents  will  have  an  additional  motive  for 
conformity,  and  Pupils  one  more  strong  stimulant  to  progress. 

Black-board  :  By  all  competent  Teachers  the  black-board  is  now  known 
to  be  the  most  useful,  and,  next  to  seats  and  desks,  the  most  indispensable 
article  of  School  furniture.  With  a  sufficiency  of  black-board,  the  well 
qualified,  experienced  Teacher  can  do  almost  any  thing  in  the  way  of  in¬ 
struction;  without  it,  he  feels  himself  at  a  loss  in  every  branch. 

As  to  the  quantity  requisite,  it  may  be  said  that  it  can  readily  be  too 
little,  but  cannot  well  be  too  great.  The  whole  wall  behind  the  Teacher’s 
seat,  and  all  the  spaces  between  the  windows  and  doors  on  the  other  walls, 
if  covered  with  good  black  surface,  extending  five  feet  upward,  from  a  point 
two  feet  above  the  floor  or  platform,  would  not  be  too  much ;  but  a  black¬ 
board  of  the  height  specified,  and  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  plat¬ 
form,  is  indispensable.  This  position  faces  the  whole  School,  and  is  there¬ 
fore  the  most  suitable  for  the  instruction  of  the  whole  at  once ;  while  it  is 
as  proper  as  any  other  for  the  use  of  individual  Pupils. 

A  number  of  expedients  have  been  tried  to  supersede  the  painted  and 
varnished  board,  first  and  still  most  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
objections  to  the  wooden  surface  are,  that  it  is  liable  to  warp  and  crack,  is 
costly,  and  requires  to  be  painted  very  frequently.  Several  of  the  black 
surfaces  now  in  use  will  be  described ;  the  wooden  board  requiring  no  other 


204 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


directions  than  that  it  should  be  composed  of  the  widest,  soundest  and 
clearest  boards  that  can  be  procured,  perfectly  seasoned,  exactly  jointed  and 
well  glued  together ;  and  that  it  should  be  firmly  fastened  to  the  wall,  so 
as  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  the  noise  made  by  the  chalk  in  writing 
upon  it. 

Paper  Surface  :  Let  the  surface  be  cleared  of  all  roughness  or  inequality 
with  sand  paper.  Take  common  wall  paper,  let  it  be  pasted  smoothly  and 
firmly  on  the  required  spaces,  and  covered  according  to  the  following  re¬ 
cipe  : 

“  Lamp-black  and  flour  of  emery  mixed  with  spirit  varnish.  No  more 
lamp-black  and  flour  of  emery  should  be  used,  than  are  sufficient  to  give  the 
required  black  and  abrading  surface;  and  the  varnish  should  contain  only 
sufficient  gum  to  hold  the  ingredients  together,  and  confine  the  composition 
to  the  wall.  The  thinner  the  mixture  the  better.  The  lamp-black  should 
first  be  ground  with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol,  to  free  it  from  lumps.  The 
composition  should  be  applied  to  the  smooth  surface  with  a  common  pain¬ 
ter’s  brush.  Let  it  become  thoroughly  dry  and  hard  before  it  is  used.”*  This 
kind  of  surface,  if  properly  made  and  used,  will  last  for  several  years. 

Another  paper  surface,  may  be  speedily  and  cheaply  prepared,  by  pasting 
strong  wall  paper  smoothly  on  the  wall,  then  sizing  it  so  as  to  prevent  the 
paint  from  sinking  into  the  paper,  and  afterwards  giving  it  a  couple  of  coats 
of  black  oil  paint,  with  a  small  mixture  of  emery  to  give  it  a  grit,  or  hold 
on  the  crayon,  and  enough  varnish  to  cause  it  to  dry  rapidly. 

Composition  Black-board:  For  twenty  square  yards  of  wall,  take  three 
pecks  of  Mason’s  putty,  (white  finish)  three  pecks  of  clean  fine  sand,  three 
pecks  of  ground  plaster,  and  three  pounds  of  lampblack  mixed  with  three 
gallons  of  alcohol.  Lay  the  mixture  evenly  and  smoothly  on  the  surface 
to  be  covered.  Note  —  The  alcohol  arid  the  lampblack  must  be  well  mixed 
together,  before  they  are  put  to  the  other  ingredients.! 

A  kind  of  composition  black-boards  is  now  in  use  in  the  Philadelphia 
High  School,  which,  after  five  years’  trial  in  some  of  the  other  Schools  of 
that  city,  has  given  great  satisfaction.  It  is  said  not  to  crack,  or  scratch 
with  the  chalk,  and  to  require  no  re-painting,- — the  whole  substance  of  the 
composition  being  the  same  throughout,  and  continually  presenting  the 
same  kind  of  surface  as  it  wears,  like  the  slate.  It  costs  from  a  dollar  and 
a  quarter  to  a  dollar  and  a  half  the  square  yard/according  to  the  quantity 
taken  4 

The  Slate  would,  no  doubt,  be  the  best  and  most  durable  substance  for 
this  purpose,  if  it  could  be  procured  in  sufficiently  large  pieces  and  set  up 
at  reasonable  rates;  but  the  price  puts  it  out  of  the  question  for  most 

*  Barnaul’s  School  Architecture,  page  387.  f  Canada  Journal  of  Education. 

I  Manufactured  by  C.  F.  Linton,  of  Philadelphia,  Patentee. 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


205 


Schools.  The  fact  that  slates  create  no  dust,  renders  them  more  pleasant  in 
use  than  any  other  surface. 

All  stationary  black-boards  should  have  a  neat  frame  or  moulding  at  the 
top  and  each  end,  and  a  ledge  or  narrow  trough  at  the  bottom,  to  lioid  tue 
chalk  or  crayons  and  the  wipers,  and  to  catch  the  dust  from  above.  This 
should  be  so  made  as  to  prevent  the  crayons  from  rolling  off  and  breaking 
on  the  floor. 

Movable  Black-boards  :  These  have  the  advantage  of 
presenting  both  sides  for  use.  One  kind  is  set  in  a  frame 
and  turns  on  pivots,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  on  School 
Apparatus.  Another  and  cheaper  kind  rests  on  a  stand, 
something  like  a  painter’s  easel.  It  is  supported  by  pins, 
which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure ;  both  sides 
being  also  prepared  for  use. 

Chalk  and  Crayons  :  Chalk  is  the  substance  most  generally  used  for  wri¬ 
ting  with  on  the  black-board ;  but  it  is  so  often  gritty  and  liable  to  scratch 
the  board,  that  prepared  crayons,  when  obtainable,  are  much  better.  The 
following  recipe  is  said  to  produce  excellent  articles  at  a  small  cost ;  and 
if  one  person  were  to  make  them  for  a  whole  District,  the  cost  and  the  labor 
would  both  be  further  reduced.  Crayons  thus  made,  will  not  cut  or  scratch 
the  board ;  but  they  are  easily  broken  and  require  more  care  than  chalk. 

To  Make  Crayons  :  Take  five  pounds  Paris  White  and  one  pound  of 
Wheat  flour,  wret  with  water,  knead  it  well,  make  it  so  stiff  that  it  will  not 
stick  to  the  table,  but  not  so  stiff  as  to  crumble  and  fall  to  pieces  when  it  is 
rolled  under  the  hand. 

To  roll  out  the  Crayons  to  the  proper  size,  two  boards  are  needed,  one  to 
roll  them  on  ;  the  other  to  roll  them  with.  The  first  should  be  a  smooth  pine 
board,  three  feet  long  and  nine  inches  wide.  The  other  also  should  be  pine, 
a  foot  long  and  nine  inches  wide,  having  nailed  on  the  under  side,  near  each 
end,  a  slip  of  wood  one-third  of  an  inch  thick,  in  order  to  raise  it  so  much 
above  the  under  board,  as  that  the  Crayon,  when  brought  to  its  proper  size, 
may  lie  between  the  boards  without  being  flattened. 

The  mass  is  rolled  into  a  ball,  and  slices  are  cut  from  one  side  of  it  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  thick ;  these  slices  are  again  cut  into  strips  about  four 
inches  long,  and  one-third  of  an  inch  wide,  and  rolled  separately  between 
these  boards  until  smooth  and  round. 

Near  at  hand  should  be  another  board,  three  feet  long  and  four  inches 
wide,  across  which  each  Crayon,  as  it  is  made,  should  be  laid,  so  that  the 
ends  may  project  on  each  side ;  —  the  Crayons  should  be  laid  in  close  con¬ 
tact  and  straight.  When  the  board  is  filled,  the  ends  should  be  trimmed 
off,  so  as  to  make  the  Crayons  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  board.  It  is  then 
laid  in  the  sun,  if  in  hot  weather,  or  if  in  winter,  near  a  stove  or  fire  place 


206 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


where  the  Crayons  may  dry  gradually,  which  will  require  twelve  hours. 
When  thoroughly  dry  they  are  fit  for  use. 

Black-board  Brush  or  Wiper  :  To  save  time  and  promote  cleanliness, 

every  Pupil  should,  when  at  the  board,  be  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  wiper,  to  clean  the  board  and  pre¬ 
vent,  as  much  as  possible,  the  dust  from  flying 
through  the  room.  A  common  sized  sheep’s 
pelt  would  afford  a  sufficient  number  of  the  kind  represented  in  the  cut,  for 
an  ordinary  School.  The  skin  should  be  cut  in  pieces  eight  inches  long  and 
five  wide,  and  be  carefully  tacked,  woolly  side  out,  on  a  block  a  little  smaller 
in  size.  If  the  block  is  two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  thick,  it  can  be 
trimmed  up  so  as  to  form  a  handle  out  of  the  same  piece.  These  Wipers 
will  last  a  long  time,  and  if  properly  made  and  used,  will  not  cut  or  scratch 
the  boards  or  wall. 

The  Conical  Brush  or  Wiper  is  a  very  superior  article,  and  is  sufficiently 

explained  by  the  engraving  A  Wiper 
of  some  kind  should  be  provided,  and 
its  use  insisted  on  in  every  School.  The 
filthy  practice  of  using  the  edge  of  the  hand,  or  the  cuff  of  the  coat  for  this 
purpose,  should  never  be  tolerated. 

hi.  class-room  furniture. 


Grammar  Class-room:  In  a  recitation  room  for  reading,  grammar,  geo¬ 
graphy  and  similar  classes,  no  desks  will  be  needed,  and  the  seats  may  be 
arranged  in  the  manner  represented  in  the  plate,  which  shows  a  room  of 
about  eighteen  feet  square. 


-  . - 

I 


A.  Teacher’s  desk  and  platform. 

B  Seats  for  class. 

C.  Windows. 

D.  Door  from  School-room. 

E.  Passages  and  spaces  for  Pupils  at  maps^nnd  black-boards. 

In  this  room  the  seats,  which  should  have 
backs  like  settees,  have  wide  spaces  between 
them  to  admit  of  easy  access,  and  are  slightly 
curved  to  enable  the  members  of  the  class 
u  c more  fully  to  face  the  Teacher.  In  these  and 
all  other  classes,  the  Pupil  should  rise  while  reading  or  reciting. 

Mathematical  Class-room  :  As  slates  will  be  frequently  used  in  this  room, 
desks  for  their  support  will  be  necessary. 

The  desks  in  this  room  should  be  about  twelve  feet  long,  (the  room 
being  eighteen  feet  square)  and  about  eighteen  inches  wide,  with  a  slight 
rise  towards  the  back.  The  seats  may  be  plain  circular  stools,  without 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


207 


backs,  as  while  using  them  the  Pupils  will  be  mostly  engaged  writing  on  the 
desks  and  will  require  no  back  support.  This 
form  of  seat  will  also  admit  of  readier  access 
to  the  seat  without  disturbance  of  others. 

For  the  same  reason,  the  spaces  between  the 
rows  of  seats  and  the  backs  of  the  next  desks 
should  be  as  wide  as  can  be  afforded. 

A.  Teacher’s  desk  and  platform. 

D.  Door  to  School-room. 

E.  Windows. 

P.  Passages  and  spaces  for  Pupils  at  black-board. 

Class-room  Black-boards  :  These  will  be  of  course,  similar  in  material 
and  height  to  those  in  the  study  room,  and  should  extend  completely 
around  both  rooms.  The  passages  or  spaces  in  front  of  them,  should,  if 
possible  be  three  feet  wide,  so  as  to  allow  the  Pupils  to  stand  before  them 
and  still  leave  room  for  the  Teacher  to  pass  from  one  to  another,  without 
interrupting  their  operations.  The  black-board  behind  the  Teacher’s  stand 
should  commence  higher  from  the  floor  and  extend  at  least  two  feet  higher 
toward  the  ceiling,  than  the  others.  It  will  be  chiefly  used  for  illustration 
and  should  be  visible,  over  the  Teacher’s  desk,  to  the  whole  class  when 
seated. 

Teacher’s  Platform  and  Desk  :  The  platform  should  be  about  six  feet 
long  and  five  wide,  and  raised  one  step  above  the  level  of  the  floor,  and 
may  be  of  the  same  form  in  both  rooms. 

The  desk  should  be  about  two  feet  wide 
and  four  long,  with  a  movable  writing 
board,  and  a  set  of  drawers  on  one  side, 
to  contain  rolls,  books,  &c.  The  side 
ledge  ought  not  to  be  higher  than  two 
inches.  If  the  class-room  have  a  closet 
for  apparatus,  as  it  should,  then  a  plain 
table  with  a  low  ledge,  a  movable  writing  desk,  and  a  couple  of  shallow 

drawers  in  the  frame  of  the  table  to  hold 
rolls,  &c.,  will  be  sufficient. 

The  Teacher’s  platform  in  the  class¬ 
room,  must,  of  course,  have  its  Chair. 
If  the  room  be  large  enough,  it  may  con¬ 
tain  half  dozen  more,  for  visitors;  the 
understanding  always  being,  that  visitors 
are  to  take  their  seats  at  once,  and  that  their  entrance  is  not  for  a  moment 
to  interrupt  the  recitation  in  progress. 

Map  Rails  :  Every  class-room  should  have  slats  or  rails,  about  four  inches 


HU8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


wide,  secured  to  the  walls  before  plastering,  if  in  a  new  house,  and  extend¬ 
ing  all  round  the  room,  for  the  insertion  of  hooks  or  pins,  on  which  to  hang 
maps,  charts,  physiological  plates,  diagrams,  &c.  If  placed  a  few  inches  — 
say  six  or  eight  —  above  the  frame  of  the  black-board,  the  maps,  &c.,  need 
not  be  taken  down  when  the  board  is  in  use,  but  may  be  rolled  and  tied 
up,  so  as  to  rest  on  the  top  of  the  board. 

The  same  kind  of  rail  should  extend  all  round  the  study-room  also.  It 
will  be  often  found  convenient,  and  will  avoid  the  injury  to  the  wall, 
caused  by  driving  nails  into  it  for  occasional  use.  In  some  Schools  map 
stands  or  racks,  are  in  use ;  but  they  are  cumbrous  articles  and  more  in  the 
way  than  the  wall-rail.  The  latter  has  the  additional  advantage  of  pro¬ 
viding  a  safe  hanging  place  for  a  very  large  number  of  maps,  &c.,  while 
not  in  use,  at  the  same  time  that  they  may  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the 
building  to  another,  with  as  little  trouble  and  delay  as  will  be  caused  by 
changing  the  maps  on  the  map  rack. 

The  noise  made  by  classes  moving  fiom  and  to  their  seats  is  very  un¬ 
pleasant.  A  strip  of  rag  or  other  carpet,  along  the  passages,  and  at  the 
recitation  stand,  is  the  best  preventive.  Various  other  expedients  have 
been  proposed  to  obviate  this  annoyance ;  but  the  same  which  is  in  use  at 
home,  is  probably  the  best  that  can  be  employed  in  the  School.  No  dwel¬ 
ling,  however  rough  or  scant  its  furniture,  is  now  without  its  strips  of  car¬ 
pet  along  the  passages  most  in  use,  both  to  prevent  noise  and  to  add  to 
comfort.  In  two  or  three  story  School-houses,  the  noise  and  shaking  of 
the  building,  caused  by  the  changing  of  large  classes,  are  very  great,  and, 
for  the  time,  disturb  the  exercises  in  all  the  other  rooms.  The  arrange¬ 
ment  called  “  deafening”  and  described  at  page  109  of  this  Manual,  is  a 
very  effective  precaution  against  this  disturbance  of  Schools  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  same  building,  and  should  always  be  adopted  in  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  new  large  School-houses;  but  it  is  no  protection  against  the  annoy¬ 
ance,  to  persons  on  the  same  floor  with  the  stamping  class.  There,  the 
surest  remedy  is  the  carpet. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


20k 


IX.  SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


ON  SCHOOL  APPARATUS,  WITH  PLATES  AND  DIRECTIONS,  FOR  ITS  SELECTION,  USE  AND 

PRESERVATION.  * 

The  utility  and  importance  of  the  use  of  apparatus  in  the  School-room, 
have  not,  it  appears,  been  generally  appreciated,  as  there  are  so  many 
School  Districts  in  which  nothing  of  the  kind  can  be  found.  It  will  not, 
therefore,  be  inappropriate  to  enumerate  some  of  the  reasons  which  may  be 
assigned  for  this  oversight  or  neglect. 

The  unsubstantial  and  inelegant  School-houses  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  the  State,  do  not  generally  admit  of  any  space  for  the  accommodation  of 
apparatus.  Had  it  been  provided,  there  was  no  place  in  which  it  could  be 
properly  and  securely  kept,  as  those  who  erected  the  buildings,  inattentive 
alike  to  the  laws  of  health  and  comfort,  supposed  economy  in  the  expen¬ 
diture  of  funds  demanded  the  utmost  contraction  of  space.  A  large 
portion  of  the  people  and  many  of  the  School  authorities,  supposed,  when 
a  house  affording  a  shelter  was  finished,  they  had  done  all  that  was  ne¬ 
cessary  for  the  use  of  the  Teacher  and  the  wants  of  the  School.  The 
Teachers  too,  in  most  instances,  owing  to  deficiency  in  that  proper  profes¬ 
sional  preparation,  which  would  have  enabled  them  to  understand  and  em¬ 
ploy  apparatus, — owing  also  to  the  neglect  of  every  branch  of  study  save 
Reading,  Writing  and  Arithmetic,  which  only  were  considered  essential, 
and  might  be  taught,  though  imperfectly,  without  such  aids,  —  and  especi¬ 
ally  because  the  short  and  uncertain  terms  of  the  Schools  did  not  render 

*  This  chapter  was  prepared,  by  request  of  the  Editor,  by  A.  M.  Gow,  A.  M.,  Principal  of  the  Union 
School  of  the  borough  of  Washington,  Washington  county,  Pennsylvania. 

27 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


210 

teaching  permanent  or  profitable,  —  felt  little  or  no  interest  in  preparing, 
purchasing  or  preserving  such  instruments. 

Hence  it  is  proper,  in  such  a  work  as  this  on  the  improvement  of  the  ma¬ 
terial  aids  to  complete  instruction,  that  the  subject  of  “  School  Apparatus” 
should  have  a  prominent  place.  This  is  more  eminently  proper,  as  the 
causes  which,  heretofore,  have  operated  to  so  great  an  extent  to  prevent 
the  introduct  ion  of  the  machinery  of  the  School-room,  it  is  confidently  hoped, 
will  ere  long  be  greatly  obviated. 

A  new  and  better  order  of  professional  Teachers,  trained  in  the  duties  of 
their  profession,  whose  whole  time  and  talents  will  be  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  education,  are  coming  on  the  stage,  and  will  demand  their  appropriate 
tools  to  carry  on  the  work.  Better  School-houses  will  now  be  erected, 
suited  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  designed.  The  more  extended 
course  of  study  now  required  by  the  law,  will  render  necessary  more  sys¬ 
tematic  teaching.  Public  interest  will  demand,  and  it  is  hoped  that  public 
sentiment  will  sanction,  longer  terms  of  teaching,  and  afford  better  facili¬ 
ties  for  imparting  instruction. 

It  is  a  fact,  which  will  be  readily  comprehended  by  every  one,  that  we 
can  best  understand  those  things  which  we  can  see  and  handle,  as  well  as, 
talk  about.  It  is  the  habit  of  mankind  to  be  better  satisfied  with  a  know¬ 
ledge  of  those  things  the  eye  has  witnessed,  than  with  the  knowledge  of 
the  same  things  of  which  they  have  only  heard.  “  We  have  seen,  and  there¬ 
fore  we  know,”  is  the  general  sentiment.  It  is  true,  that  much  of  our 
knowledge  of  material  things,  of  facts,  and  of  principles,  is  not  the  result 
of  our  own  observation  or  experiment;  much  that  we  know  is  received  and 
appropriated  upon  the  faith  we  have  in  others,  in  connection  with  our  own 
knowledge  of  facts  and  principles  ;  —  but  he  is  not  well  educated  who  relies 
implicitly  upon  the  statements  of  others,  without  some  corroboration  of  his 
own  judgment  and  experience.  Scholars  should  think  welt  and  reason  cor¬ 
rectly  —  should  form  conclusions  from  established  facts ;  and  to  do  this,  as 
much  of  their  education  as  possible  should  be  demonstrated  or  illustrated 
by  practical  appeals  to  their  reason,  through  the  media  of  the  eye  and  the 
touch,  as  well  as  the  sense  of  hearing. 

Nor  are  the  senses  always  able  to  convey  the  truth  to  the  mind,  although 
generally  so  reliable.  We  may  deceive  ourselves  by  relying  too  much  on 
the  appearances  things  may  assume.  Optical  illusions  or  deceptions  are 
not  unfrequent,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  understanding  things  not  only 
as  they  appear,  but  as  they  are. 

The  most  enlightened  and  gifted  Teacher  will  frequently  find  that  words 
are  not  sufficient  to  give  a  clear  and  distinct  idea  of  subjects,  which  are 
material  and  objects  of  sense.  He  must  bring  his  subject,  not  abstractly, 
but  really  and  practically,  to  the  mind  of  the  Pupil,  in  order  that  it  may 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


211 


be  fully  understood ;  and  if  he  be  not  prepared  to  make  his  illustrations  or 
experiments  from  the  best  sources  and  models,  his  ingenuity  should  be 
excited  to  present  the  best  his  means  and  opportunities  will  allow.  The 
more  that  all  the  senses  can  be  employed,  the  more  information  can  be 
gained  of  any  sub¬ 
ject.  The  wisest 
philosopher,  endea¬ 
voring  to  explain 
the  construction 
and  operation  of  a 
steam  engine, to  one 
not  well  versed  in 
mechanical  science, 
would  fail  to  con¬ 
vey  any  correct  idea 

of  the  machine,  unless  assisted  by  diagrams,  pictures  and  models.  Lan¬ 
guage  alone  would  not  be  sufficient  to  present  to  the  mind  a  clear  conception 
of  the  complicated  structure.  Its  various  parts  so  nicely  adjusted  and  well 
adapted  to  each  other  —  its  tremendous  power  and  extreme  velocity,  could 
never  be  understood  or  appreciated  unless*  it  was  thus  seen  and  studied. 

It  is  thus  a  question  of  great  moment,  how  far  can  material  objects  be 
brought  to  assist  in  the  improvement  of  the  District  Schools  ?  Or,  in  other 
words,  What  tools  can  be  put  into  the  Teacher’s  hands,  to  enable  him  to  do 
the  most  and  best  service,  in  the  least  time,  and  with  the  most  economical 
expenditure  of  funds  ? 

School  apparatus  may  be  enumerated  under  two  classes :  The  first  em¬ 
braces  those  things  which  should  be  considered  indispensable,  and  which  no 
District  School  should  be  without.  The  second  contains  such  articles  as 
may'  be  considered  exceedingly  useful  though  not  absolutely  essential,  and 
also  such  as  are  most  highly  finished  and  expensive. 

As  the  School  law  requires  certain  branches  of  science  to  be  pursued  in 
every  District,  we  would  distinguish  that  apparatus  as  belonging  to  the  first 
dass  which  is  necessary  to  demonstrate,  illustrate  or  teach  those  branches, 
viz :  geography,  grammar,  arithmetic,  reading,  writing  and  spelling,  and 
also  to  assist  in  the  management  of  the  School.  The  large  majority  of 
District  Schools  would  require  a  complete  set  of  apparatus  adapted  to  this 
end,  and  some  might  even  go  further,  and  secure  some  of  the  instruments 
enumerated  in  the  second  class. 

Those  embraced  in  the  second  class  would  consist  of  such  materiel  as  would 
be  used  in  the  teaching  of  any  particular  branch  of  science,  other  than  those 
named  in  the  School  law,  as  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  physiology,  &c. 


212 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


In  the  first  place,  the  first  class  apparatus  will  be  treated  of,  because 
much  that  it  includes  would  be  applicable  to  Schools  of  the  highest  grade, 

FIRST  CLASS  APPARATUS. 

THE  CLOCK. 

,e  The  bell  strikes  one.  We  take  no  note  of  time 
“  But  from  its  loss.  To  give  it  then  a  tongue 
“  Is  wise  in  man.” 

The  habit  of  correct  observation  cannot  be  cultivated  in  a  better  way 
than  by  a  constant  reference  to  time.  In  School  this  is  particularly  the 
case.  Every  day  has  its  appointed  duties,  and  every  hour  its  special  exer¬ 
cise.  To  secure  punctuality,  regularity,  harmony  and  good  order,  a  clock, 
which  may  now  be  obtained  for  a  small  sum,  should  be  placed  in  some  con¬ 
spicuous  position  in  the  School-room. 

“  Time  is  dealt  out  by  particles  - 

•‘To  give  it  then  a  tongue  is  wise  in  man.” 

THE  BELL. 

A  little  hand  bell  should  accompany  the  clock  as  a  conservator  of  order, 
and  will,  if  judiciously  managed,  save  for  the  Teacher  many  an  effort  of 
the  lungs.  For  opening  the  School,  in  changing  classes,  and  at  dismis¬ 
sion,  it  is  a  sovereign  remedy  for  noise  and  confusion.  Sometimes  a  single 
click  of  the  clapper,  accompanied  by  a  glance  of  the  Teacher’s  eye,  will 
speak  a  language  “  louder  than  words.”  For  ordinary  purposes,  a  simple 
twenty-five  cent  bell  will  be  amply  sufficient,  and  much  preferable  to  the 
spring  bell  which  is  sometimes  used. 

THE  ROLL. 

The  School  law  requires  a  record  of  the  attendance  of  the  Scholars  to  be 
kept  by  the  Teacher,  and  presented  monthly  to  the  Directors,  by  whom  it 
is  to  be  carefully  preserved  for  future  reference.  To  carry  out  the  law  in 
its  letter  and  spirit,  a  roll-book  or  permanent  register  should  be  provided  by 
the  Board,  ruled  according  to  the  prescribed  form,  and  sufficiently  large  to 
extend  through  a  number  of  years.  They  should  require  it  to  be  kept 
neatly  and  accurately  by  the  Teacher,  and  presented  regularly  for  inspec¬ 
tion.  A  book  of  record  of  this  kind,  kept  as  contemplated,  would  exert  a 
beneficial  influence  upon  all  connected  with  the  School.  To  the  Directors 
it  would  afford  at  a  glance,  the  comparative  merits  of  one  School  with  an¬ 
other,  and  of  the  present,  with  the  Schools  of  the  past.  To  the  parent  it 
would  exhibit  the  attendance  of  the  child,  and  its  character.  The  Pupil, 
knowing  the  permanence  of  the  record,  would  strive  to  appear  to  the  best 
advantage  upon  its  pages.  And  lastly,  the  Teacher  could  refer  to  it  as  one 
evidence  of  his  neatness,  regularity  and  faithfulness. 

THE  THERMOMETER. 

To  ascertain  the  degree  of  temperature  in  the  School-room,  (always  a 
consideration  of  importance)  there  should  be,  at  least,  one  thermometer. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


213 


By  means  of  the  ventilators  the  Teacher  may  regulate  the  tempera¬ 
ture,  and  prevent  those  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  so  injurious  to 
health  and  prejudicial  to  comfort.  The  temperature  should  if  possi¬ 
ble  range  between  sixty  and  seventy  degrees.  Thermometers  in  tin 
cases  range  in  price  from  fifty  cents,  to  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents. 


Thus  far  we  have  treated  of  those  things  which  are  important  to  pre¬ 
serve  order,  punctuality  and  comfort.  We  will  now  refer  to  the  apparatus 
necessary  for  teaching  the  required  elementary  branches. 

APPARATUS  FOR  THE  LITTLE  ONES. 

It  would  lie  an  easier  task  to  select  and  use  the  apparatus  of  a  college, 
than  to  make  choice  of  those  things,  suitable  for  the  ee  little  ones”  of  the 
School. 

“  The  earth  was  made  so  various,  that  the  mind 
“  Of  desultory  man,  studious  of  change 
“  And  pleased  with  novelty,  might  be  indulged.” 

The  School-house  should  also  be  “  made  so  various.”  If  children  be  well 
taught  in  School,  efforts  must  be  made  to  satisfy  their  desire  after  novelty 
and  variety.  They  must  be  interested ;  and  to  interest  them,  they  must 
have  constant  employment. 

THE  SLATE. 

Every  child  old  enough  to  attend  School  should  be  furnished  with  a  small, 
neat,  well  bound  slate. 

All  children  love  to  draw 
figures  and  make  marks 
with  the  chalk  or  pencil. 

If  the  propensity  which 
affords  them  so  much 
amusement,  be  properly 
directed,  it  will  save  them 
many  a  weary  hour  at 
School.  If  parents  were 
confined  six  hours  a  day, 
with  but  little  intermis¬ 
sion,  listening  to  their 
Teacher  of  sacred  things,  in  the  church ;  or  if  the  father  were  obliged  to  sit 
for  several  days  constantly  as  a  juror,  —  a  slate  and  pencil,  a  picture,  even 
a  pine  stick  to  whittle,  would  afford  great  relief.  Letters,  words,  and  figures 
may  be  written  and  pictures  may  be  copied  during  the  time  which,  without 
these  amusements  and  employments,  would  be  spent  in  idleness,  restlessness 
or  mischief.  Several  kinds  of  slates  are  now  in  use.  The  lighter,  stronger, 
and  more  beautiful  the  article,  the  more  it  will  be  prized  and  used. 


214 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


CARDS  AND  PICTURES. 

To  the  great  comfort  of  Teachers  and  saving  of  primers,  the  most  of  the 
authors  of  the  reading  books  in  use  have  prepared  cards  or  charts  on  paste¬ 
board,  which  contain  the  alphabet  and  single  words.  A  class  may  recite 
from  these  with  pleasure  and  profit.  When  not  in  use,  the  children  may 
copy  the  words  and  letters  on  their  slates.  Cards  called  “  chalk  drawings,” 
to  be  used  by  children  as  copies  at  the  black-board,  are  very  useful  and 
beautiful.  They  represent  the  object,  (a  horse  or  a  flower  as  the  case  may 
be,)  on  a  black  ground  with  white  lines,  so  that  they  appear  as  if  drawn 
with  chalk  on  the  black-board.  If  nothing  better  can  be  secured,  the  cuts 
and  illustrations  from  one  or  other  of  the  “  Pictorials,”  now  so  common, 
hung  around  the  School-room,  would  give  cheering  evidence  that  it  is  a 
work  shop  where  mind  is  cultivated  and  taste  improved.  The  primary 
and  secondary  colors  should  be  painted  on  cards,  to  teach  children  to  distin¬ 
guish  colors  and  to  cultivate  their  taste  for  the  beautiful. 


BUILDING  BLOCKS. 


For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  principle  of  gravitation,  about  one 

hundred  blocks,  each  one  inch  thick,  one 
inch  wide  and  two  inches  long,  should  be 
provided.  Many  jwactical  arithmetical 
difficulties  might  be  explained  by  reference 
to  a  construction  by  the  blocks,  but  the 
chief  excellence  of  such  a  set  would  consist 
in  the  amusement  and  employment  it  would 
afford  the  “little  ones.”  While  the  Teacher 

—  .  was  busy  teaching  a  class,  they  would  be 

no  less  busy  in  quietly  building  those  little  houses.  A  pile  of  corn-cobs  for 
miniature  house  building,  (and  where  is  the  philosopher  who  has  never 
built  corn-cob  castles?)  would  be  contemptible  compared  with  such  materials. 


OBJECT  LESSONS. 

To  complete  the  list  of  those  things  deemed  indispensable,  for  the  use  of 
the  Teacher  and  the  benefit  of  the  “  little  ones,”  there  should  be  provided 
a  strong  box  to  contain  a  cabinet  or  omnium  gatherum  or  liotch  patch ,  se¬ 
lected  from  every  where ;  picked  up  in  any  place.  Common-place  things 
should  there  have  a  place.  Whole  volumes  might  be  written  on  the  sim¬ 
ple  texts,  there  contained,  which  could  be  gathered  in  an  hour. 

“  Truths,  *  *  * 

“  That  ’tis  our  shame  and  mis’ry  not  to  learn, 

“  Shine  by  the  side  of  every  path  we  tread 
“  With  such  a  lustre,  lie  that  runs  may  read.” 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


215 


This  box  should  contain  silk,  muslin,  flannel,  linen,  oil-cloth,  felt,  drug¬ 
get,  brick,  pottery,  china,  glass,  iron,  steel,  copper,  lead,  tin,  brass,  pewter, 
a  type,  a  ring,  a  needle,  a  pin,  a  button,  steel  pen,  paper,  parchment,  leather, 
morocco,  kid,  buckskin,  cocoon,  hair,  wool,  hemp,  flax,  wax,  gum,  bean,  pea, 
clove,  coffee,  cinnamon,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  buckwheat,  sponge,  shells,  &c. 
Such  a  box  would  contain  a  mine  of  truth  to  be  had  for  the  taking. 

Much  philosophy  can  be  gathered  from  boys’  toys.  A  top,  a  kite,  a  bat 
and  ball,  a  marble,  a  bow  and  arrow  —  all  illustrate  some  principle  or  prin¬ 
ciples  of  mechanical  law.  An  ingenious,  thinking  Teacher  will,  if  many  of 
these  things  are  not  provided  to  his  hand  by  those  who  ought  to  furnish 
them,  make  them  himself  rather  than  be  without  them.  And  besides  these, 
any  Teacher  can  afford  a  syphon,  a  magnet,  a  prism,  a  lens,  &c. 

THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

The  black-board  is  the  greatest  time  and  labor  saving  invention,  that  can 
be  introduced  into  the  School.  It  may  be  put  to  an  almost  infinite  degree 
of  service,  from  the  simple  teaching  of  the  alphabet,  to  the  most  abstruse 
problems  in  mathematics.  Writing,  spelling,  punctuation,  geographic  dia¬ 
grams,  algebra,  geometry,  arithmetic,  philosophical  figures  and  drawing, 
may  all  be  taught  with  this  invaluable  auxiliary.  If  the  blacked  surface  be 
sufficiently  large,  a  dozen,  or  twenty,  or  forty  Pupils  if  necessary,  may  be  ex¬ 
ercised  at  once,  and  the  rapidity  and  accuracy  with  which  such  exercises 
may  be  performed,  would  perfectly  astonish  those  who  are  not  familiar  with 
this  mode  of  illustration  and  practice.  No  School-house  should  be  without 
black-board  accommodation  for  at  least  a  dozen  Pupils.  Twenty-four  feet 
in  length  will  accommodate  that  number,  but  more  room  would  be  better. 
A  board  should  also  be  prepared  for  the  special  use  of  the  Teacher.  The 
permanent  black-board  on  the  wall,  with  descriptions  for  preparing  the 
various  kinds  of  surface  used  for  this  purpose,  and  for  crayons  or  chalk, 
wipers,  &c.,  comes  under  the  head  of  School  Furniture.  These  have  been 
fully  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  mova¬ 
ble  or  frame  black-board,  however  would  seem  to 
come  within  the  list  of  apparatus.  The  size  should 
be  about  three  and  a  half  by  six  feet,  and  to  facilitate 
moving,  it  should  be  set  on  large  castors.  When  not 
in  use  it  will  occupy  but  little  space  at  the  side  of 
the  room.  Upon  the  top  cross-rail,  neat  hooks  should 
be  inserted,  to  hang  maps,  cards,  &c.,  necessary  for  little  Pupils. 

POINTERS  OR  WANDS. 

Several  pointers  should  be  furnished  for  use  in  the  demonstration  of  prob¬ 
lems  on  the  board,  and  for  pointing  out  places  on  the  outline  maps.  They 
should  be  four  or  five  feet  long,  neatly  tapering  to  a  point,  and  light. 


216 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


CARDINAL  POINTS. 

To  familiarize  Scholars  with  the  principal  points  of  the  compass,  North, 
South,  East  and  West  should  be  neatly  painted  or  printed,  and  put  up  on 
the  corresponding  walls  of  the  School-house. 

GLOBES. 

It  is  a  difficult  thing  for  a 
Scholar  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  the  earth,  on  which  we 
live,  is  globular ;  and  that 
though  it  has  a  motion  which 
tends  to  throw  us  from  its 
surface,  yet  we  cannot  fall 
from  it.  Maps  may,  to  some 
extent,  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  to  convey 
the  complete  idea,  a  model  is  indispensable. 

That  model  is  the  terrestrial  globe.  Not  un- 
frequently,  the  Pupil,  attempting  to  learn  geog¬ 
raphy  without  this  aid,  has  and  will  always 
continue  to  have,  a  confused  idea  of  equator, 

meridians,  parallels  and  poles ;  of  latitudes,  longitudes, 
axis  and  zones.  The  whole  is  to  him  without  system 
and  with  little  sense.  On  the  contrary,  these  terms  are 
easily  taught,  if  suitable  subjects  for  illustration  be 
provided. 

The  celestial  globe,  will  also  much  facilitate  the 
conveyance  of  information  as  to  the  position  and  mo¬ 
tions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  will  enable  the 
Teacher  to  impart  some  knowledge  of  astro¬ 
nomy.  Globes  are  generally  constructed  in 
pairs,  and  though  the  terrestrial  is  more  useful 
and  better  calculated  to  impress  the  true  idea 
of  the  thing  represented,  than  the  celestial,  yet 
both  will  be  found  highly  advantageous.  A 
neat  terrestrial  globe,  such  as  is  represented  by 
the  first  plate,  can  be  had  for  about  six  dollars, 
with  a  neat  case;  and  larger  ones  for  various  prices,  in  projiortion  to 
the  size. 

“  A  hemisphere  globe  supplies  a  want  long  felt,  viz  :  an  illustration,  which 
any  child  can  understand,  of  the  reason  of  the  curved  lines  on  a  map,  and 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS* 


217 


shows  how  the  flat  surface  is  a  proper  representation  of  a  globe, 
ispheres  are  united  by  a  hinge, 
and  when  closed,  a  neat  little 
globe  is  presented ;  when  opened, 
two  maps  are  seen,  showing  the 
continents,  as  if  through  trans¬ 
parent  hemispheres.” 


Two  hem- 


MAPS. 

A  map  is  a  picture  of  a  part,  or 
of  the  whole  of  the  earth’s  sur¬ 
face.  From  a  study  of  such  pic-  Hemisphere  Globe. 

tures  the  mind  is  enabled,  by  the  principle  of  association,  to  transfer  and  se¬ 
cure  a  mental  copy  or  impression  from  the  canvas  or  plate. 

Amongst  the  best  maps  for  the  School-room  are  those  called  outline  maps, 
or  such  as  have  no  names  on  them,  but  merely  an  outline  of  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  country  represented.  When  properly  instructed  by 
means  of  these,  children  have  no  difficulty  in  carrying  in  the  mind’s  eye 
the  forms  and  features  of  the  various  countries,  and  the  relative  positions 
they  occupy  to  each  other  and  to  their  own. 

The  best  size  of  maps  for  use  in  the  country  Schools  where  the  houses 
are  generally  small,  is  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  square.  If  they  are 
larger  than  this,  they  occupy  more  room  than  can  be  spared,  and  are  in- 
covenient  to  handle.  There  should  not  be  less  than  ten  maps  in  the  set ;  com¬ 
prising  Eastern  and  Western  hemispheres,  North  and  South  America,  Eu¬ 
rope,  Asia,  Africa,  United  States,  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  if  possible  a 

map  of  the  county  and  township 
containing  the  School.  These  maps 
should  also  be  highly  colored,  and 
hung  as  objects  of  beauty  and  taste 
around  the  room.  Whenever  they 
are  used  in  recitation,  they  should 
be  removed  to  the  north  side  of  the 


Ttiis  pn,  house,  or  hung  on  the  movable 


black-board,  so  that  the  points  of  the  compass  on  the  map  may  correspond 
with  their  true  position  on  the  earth.  Such  a  set  would  be  very  durable, 
and  can  be  bought  at  from  five  to  fifteen  dollars,  according  to  their  finish. 


THE  TELLURION  OR  SEASON  MACHINE. 


As  a  useful  accompaniment  to  the  globe  and  maps  in  the  study  of  geog¬ 
raphy,  we  notice  the  tellurion  or  season  machine.  Among  the  most  difficult 
phenomena  presented  to  the  minds  of  children,  are  the  changes  of  the  sea- 
28 


218 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


sons  —  the  revolutions  of  the  moon  around  the  earth  and  the  earth  around 
the  sun  —  and  the  subject  of  tides.  These  and  several  others  may  be  illus¬ 
trated  and  explained  by  the  aid  of 
this  machine.  The  science  of  geog¬ 
raphy,  in  its  common  acceptation, 
includes,  with  “  a  description  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,”  some  account 
of  its  physical  phenomena  —  of  peo¬ 
ple,  manners,  custom,  religion  and 
laws  ;  and  of  its  relations  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  solar  system.  In  this  view  the  study  of  the  earth’s  motions 
and  changes,  although  belonging  to  the  science  of  astronomy,  might  properly 
he  classed  among  those  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  District  School. 

MUSICAL  MULTIPLICATION  TABLE. 

In  order  to  acquire  facility  in  using  numbers,  the  multiplication  table 
must  be  committed  to  memory.  To  facilitate  the  memorizing  of  abstract 
numbers,  musical  association  may  be  used.  Cards  large  enough  to  be  seen 
across  the  School-room  should  be  hung  around.  They  will  serve  as  orna^ 
ments  to  the  room  and  answer  the  double  purpose  of  assisting  the  memory, 
and  training  the  vocal  organs.  It  is  an  immense  labor  to  learn  these  tables. 
If  any  one  doubt  this,  let  the  attempt  be  made  to  commit  the  numbers  from 
twelve  times  twelve  to  twenty-tour  times  twenty-four,  and  the  doubt  will 
be  dispelled.  Every  thing  should  be  done  to  assist  children  and  make 
pleasing  such  hard  labor,  in  which  the  thinking  powers  take  little  part.  A 
dozen  cards  will  cost  one  dollar. 


THE  ABACUS  OR  NUMERAL  FRAME. 

The  cut  shows  a  frame  support¬ 
ing  twelve  rows  of  little  wooden 
balls,  strung  on  wires  along  which 
they  move  readily.  The  simple 
rules  of  arithmetic  are  difficult  to 
acquire  abstractly.  Children  count 
by  means  of  their  fingers  until  they 
acquire  proficiency.  This  instru¬ 
ment  is  better,  as  the  Teacher  can 
instruct  a  whole  class  or  School  at 
the  same  time.  Involution  and 
Evolution  may  be  illustrated  by 
means  of  the  instrument  to  those 
further  advanced  in  mathemati¬ 


cal  study.  They  can  be  had  for  from  one  to  two  dollars. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


219 


GEOMETRICAL  SOLIDS. 

A  portion  of  practical  arithmetic,  in  most  or  all  the  text  books  now  in 
use,  is  devoted  to  the  men¬ 
suration  of  solids.  Such  sol¬ 
ids  should  be  put  into  the 
Pupils’  hands.  Cubes,  cones, 
prisms,  pyramids,  spheres, 
hemispheres,  spheroids,  cyl¬ 
inders,  and  sections  of  each, 
should  comprise  a  portion  at 
least  of  the  set.  If  measures 
of  length,  as  the  foot,  divided 
into  inches  and  nails;  yard 
and  rod  ;  and  measures  of  capacity,  as  pint,  quart,  gallon  and  half-bushel  were 
added,  the  assortment  would  be  more  useful  and  complete.  Solids  represent¬ 
ing  timber  and  boards  of  different  measurements  should  also  be  secured. 

CUBE  ROOT  BLOCK. 

To  make  apparent  the  reason  of  the  rules  for  the  extraction  of  cube  and 

square  roots,  the  sectional  cube 


block  should  be  used.  This  block, 
or  rather  number  of  blocks  united, 
forms  a  cube  as  is  seen  in  the  figure. 
The  parts  may  be  separated  from 
each  other,  being  held  together  by 
wire  pins.  In  connection  with  the 
Abacus  heretofore  mentioned,  the 
whole  subject  may  be  rendered  per¬ 
fectly  plain  by  its  use.  The  cost 
of  the  above  articles  depends  upon 

their  size  and  the  finish  put  on  them. 

MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


Inclined  Plane. 


Wedge. 


Screw. 


Levers. 

The  principles  of  natural  philosophy  in  their  practical  application  should 
be  seen  and  understood  in  School.  Many  arithmetical  operations  are  based 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE'. 


220 

upon  them.  An  apparatus,  such  as  is  seen  in  the  cuts,  would  give  a  betteU 
practical  knowledge,  in  a  few  weeks,  of  the  principles  of  mechanics,  than 

wrould  be  learned  by  experience 
in  years.  Such  knowledge  is  in¬ 
valuable  to  its  possessor,  as  every 
day  some  principle  is  used  in 
practice.  The  set  should  em¬ 
brace  the  lever,  simple  and  com¬ 
pound  ;  the  wheel  and  axle,  erect 
and  inverted;  the  pulley,  fixed 
and  movable;  the  inclined  plane; 
the  wedge  and  the  screw.  To 
these  might  be  added  a  set  of  il¬ 
lustrations  for  the  centre  of  gra¬ 
vity,  both  amusing  and  instruc¬ 
tive.  Sets  of  mechanical  powers  may  be  had  at  from  five  to  one  hundred 
dollars,  according  to  their  finish, 

SECOND  CLASS  APPARATUS, 

ELECTRICITY. 

The  science  of  electricity  affords  perhaps  as  great  and  as  interesting  a 
variety  of  exper¬ 
iments  as  any 
other.  The  prin- 
of  the  sci¬ 
ence  may  be  pre¬ 
sented  in  so  ma¬ 
ny  applications, 
as  to  keep  the 
student  in  con¬ 
stant  wonder  and 
delight.  By  aid 
of  apparatus  the 

the  operator  seems  invested  with  magical  or  supernatural  power.  He  calls 

this  invisible  agent  into  active  life,  directs  its  energy, 
and  controls  its  force.  Now,  it  appears  darting  and 
flaming,  sparkling  and  crackling  like  the  lightning’s 
flash ;  and  now  subdued  and  tame,  it  rings  a  chime 
of  bells.  Now,  like  an  engine  of  death  the  birds  fall 
before  the  mimic  gun,  charged  to  destroy ;  and  again, 
it  causes  light  footed  figures  to  dance  a  merry  reel. 


Electric  Bells, 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


221 


We  fear  its  force,  we  wonder  at  its  greatness,  and  we  laugh  at  the 
freaks  it  plays.  The  shattered  model  of  the  miniature 
house,  the  head  of  hair  in  wild  disorder,  the  miser’s  plate, 
the  magic  picture,  all,  are  full  of  interest  and  instruction. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  electrical  machines.  The  fig¬ 
ure  exhibits  the  plate  machine.  Instead  of  the  plate, 
many  machines  are  furnished  with  a  glass  cylinder,  as 
a  generator.  The  plate  machines  are  deemed  the  best. 
Machines  may  be  purchased  at  from  five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
exclusive  cf  jars,  discharging  rod,  chains,  &c. 


dollars. 


THE  MAGIC  LANTERN. 

There  is  no  instrument  of  which  we  know,  that  embraces  a  wider  range 
of  application  than  the  magic  lantern.  Ingenuity  and  invention  seem  to 
have  been  almost  exhausted  in  providing  it  subjects  for  exhibition.  It 
seems  to  throw  light  on  every  subject.  By  it  the  glories  of  celestial  scenery 
are  made  apparent  to  our  astonished  vision.  Systems  and  suns,  constella¬ 
tions  and  comets,  are  made  beautiful  subjects  for  illustration.  An  Adam 
and  Eve  driven  from  Paradise ;  Abraham  offering  his  son ;  Joseph  sold 
into  Egypt ;  David  and 
Goliah  ;  the  flight  of  the 
holy  family  into  Egypt ; 
the  Prodigal  son,  — carry 
us  back  to  patriarchal  days; 
while  the  pictures  of  Ve¬ 
nice,  Naples,  Niagara  falls, . 
and  New  York,  bring  us  to 
our  own  times  and  places. 

Botany, with  its  innumera¬ 
ble  specimens  of  floral 
beauty ;  Natural  history, 
with  its  various  orders  of 
animal  creation — all  afford 
instruction  and  amuse¬ 
ment.  The  drunkard’s  progress ;  the  progress  of  intemperance,  and  the  bad 
boy’s  progress,  illustrated  by  some  thirty  different  representations,  convey 
moral  truths  and  virtuous  lessons.  While  the  lover  of  the  ridiculous  finds 
infinite  fun  in  the  comic  characters  and  humorous  scenes. 

The  prices  of  these  instruments  vary  from  five  to  one  hundred  dollars 
without  the  slides,  which  are  variously  estimated  according  to  finish. 


222 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


THE  DIOPTRIC  MAGIC  LANTERN". 

“  This  dissolving  apparatus,  possesses  within  as  small  a  compass  as  the 

lantern  of  the  ordinary 
description,  all  the  pow¬ 
er  of  two  lanterns,  with 
only  one  small  lamp  of 
intense  brightness,  free 
from  the  objectionable 
smell  and  great  heat  of 
ordinary  lamps,  whereby 
a  disc  of  twenty  feet  for 
eacli  tube  may  be  obtain¬ 
ed.  Each  disc  is  capa¬ 
ble  of  being  darkened 
to  any  required  extent* 
without  the  least  shadow 
on  any  portion  of  the  pic¬ 
ture  ;  and  from  the  superiority  in  the  optical  arrangements  of  the  appara¬ 
tus,  each  picture  is  perfectly  flat  and  well  defined  to  the  extreme  edge.  As 
the  discs  may  be  thrown  either  together  on  one  circle  or  united  at  various 
distances  in  length  upon  the  screen,  the  number  of  effects  which  may  be 
produced  may  be  easily  imagined;  they  present,  first  —  a  succession  of  dis¬ 
solving  views,  so  accurately  and  gradually  dissolving,  that  the  most  expe¬ 
rienced  eye  cannot  perceive  the  operation  going  on.  Secondly  —  various 
effects,  as  falling  snow,  &c.,  succeeded  by  sunshine  and  rainbow  ;  volcanoes 
in  eruption,  &c.  Thirdly  —  double  discs,  as  the  two  hemispheres  of  the 
globe  on  the  screen  at  once,  full  size ;  or  two  separate  portions  of  one  dia¬ 
gram  of  extended  length,  without  crowding,  as  at  present,  all  the  objects 
into  one  disc.  Fourthly  —  combinations  of  two  moving  or  revolving  slides 
on  one  circle,  as  all  the  planetary  systems  in  motion,  &c.,  &c.,  or  all  the 
vagaries  of  two  chromatropes  taken  in  combination,  and  permutations  of 
one  or  two  together.  The  portability  of  the  apparatus  is  also  of  importance  ; 
the'  whole  can  be  packed,  viz :  the  lantern,  gas  bag,  retort,  purifier,  &c., 
with  several  dozen  slides,  in  a  case  two  feet  square,  and  about  eighteen 
inches  deep,  —  a  decided  advantage  over  every  other  description  of  dissolv¬ 
ing  view  apparatus.” 

It  is  not  expected  that  these  instruments  shall  be  found  in  every  School, 
even  of  the  higher  grades;  but  if  they  were,  the  interest  which  they  could 
be  made  to  add  to  the  instruction  imparted,  would  be  worth  to  each  Pupil, 
far  more  than  their  whole  cost. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


223 


ASTRONOMY. 


The  apparatus  to  which  we 
refer,  for  the  study  of  the  sci¬ 
ence  of  astronomy,  consists  of 
the  Orrery,  or  model  of  the 
planets,  revolving  in  their  va¬ 
rious  orbits  and  surrounded  by 
their  satelites  and  put  in  mo¬ 
tion  by  a  crank  or  spring  :  — 
The  Telescope,  without  which 


we  cannot  see  very  far  into  this  sci¬ 
ence:  —  The  Tellurian  of  which  mention 
was  made  in  first  class  apparatus ;  —  and 
the  celestial  Globe.  An  Orrery  might 
be  purchased  at  from  five  to  fifty  dollars; 
a  Telescope  from  ten  dollars  upwards, 
and  a  pair  of  Globes  for  from  ten  to  one 
hundred  dollars. 


Telescope. 


PNEUMATICS. 

Many  beautiful  and  interesting  experiments  may  be  performed  with  the 
air  pump.  The  elasticity,  expansiveness,  and  compressibility  of  air  may  be 

illustrated  by  this  ma¬ 
chine.  Four  of  our 
cuts  represent  exper¬ 
iments  which  are 
made  by  the  air  pump 
These  experiments 
demonstrate,  clearly 
and  practically,  some 
facts  which,  to  the 
uneducated  would 
seem  paradoxical. — 
Thus,  to  prove  that 
air  is  the  means  by 
which  sound  is  trans¬ 
mitted,  it  is  only  ne¬ 
cessary  to  place  a  bell 
under  the  glass  receiver  of  the  machine  and  to  exhaust  the  air,  or  in  other 
words,  to  pump  it  out,  and  then  by  a  contrivance,  as  seen  in  cut  No.  1,  to 
ring  the  bell  and  no  sound  will  be  heard.  If  the  air  is  returned  to  the  re¬ 
ceiver  and  the  bell  struck,  its  presence  is  discovered  by  the  ringing.  Again, 


224 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


to  ascertain  the  weight  of  air,  if  a  hollow  sphere  of  copper,  and  air  tight, 

is  placed,  as  seen  in  cut 
No.  4,  at  one  end  of  a  del¬ 
icate  balance  under  the 
exhausted  receiver  after 
been  weighed  in  air,  the 
difference  of  weight  will 
indicate  the  weight  of  the 
air.  Cut  No.  5  shows 
that  the  air  offers  resist¬ 
ance  to  falling  bodies,  and 
that  if  the  long  glass  tube 
have  the  air  removed  from 
within  it,  on  being  invert¬ 
ed  suddenly,  the  piece  of 
coin  and  the  feather  which 
it  contains,  will  fall  to  the 
other  end,  at  the  same  instant.  Figure  6,  exhibits  a  glass  receiver  sup¬ 
ported  by  three  legs ;  to  the  under  part  of 
the  glass  is  attached  an  air¬ 
tight  india  rubber  bag,  to 
which  a  heavy  weight  is  hung. 

The  air  exerts  a  pressure  of  fif¬ 
teen  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
in  all  directions,  up  as  well  as 
down,  so  that  when  the  air  is 
exhausted  from  the  glass,  it .  Weighing  air  No  4. 
presses  upward  externally  on  the  rubber  cloth  to  fill  the  vacuum  and  car- 
f  ries  with  it  the  suspended  weight.  These  and  a  great  variety 
of  others  may  be  subject  of  illustration  in  this  interesting  de¬ 
partment.  Apparatus  illustrating  the  principles  of  Pneumatics 
is  exceedingly  useful,  as  it  teaches  that 
which  has  a  constant  application  to  the 
business  of  every  day  life.  The  cuts,  1, 

2  and  3  exhibit  air  pumps  of  different 
patterns.  No.  1,  has  one  cylinder.  No.  2, 
has  two  cylinders,  and  exhausts  each  al¬ 
ternately.  No.  3,  sufficiently  large  for 
ordinary  use,  is  a  single  barrel,  and  the 
A  piston  is  worked  by  the  hand  without 
the  assistance  of  the  lever.  The  cylin- 


No.  6. 


Weight  Lifter  No.  6. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


225 


cler  of  No.  3  may  be  taken  off  the  machine,  and  being  inverted,  will  serve 
as  a  condenser,  and  is  therefore  for  ordinary  use  to  be  preferred. 

Air  pumps  may  be  purchased  at  from  eight  to  one  hundred  dollars  each  ; 
but  the  apparatus  for  the  various  experiments  connected  with  them,  will  be 
an  additional  expense. 

HYDROSTATICS  AND  HYDRAULICS. 


Pump,  No.  2. 


This  department  of  science  may  be  illustrated  by  many  interesting  and 

instructive  experi¬ 
ments.  The  cuts 
represent  a  few  of 
Water  Level,  No.  1.  the  more  COmmOll 
and  practically  useful.  No.  1,  exhibits  a  va¬ 
riety  of  vessels  of  different  forms  and  capa- 
c  ities,  united  at  the  bottom  by  an  aperture 
common  to  all.  If  water  or  any  other  liquid 
be  poured  into  the  funnel-shaped  vessel  at  the 
end,  it  will  run  into  each  of  the  others  and 
rise  as  high  in  them  as  in  the  one  into  which 
it  was  poured;  thus  demonstrating  that  a  li¬ 
quid  will  rise  to  a  common  level,  without  regard  to 
size  or  shape  of  the  united  vessels  whiclTcontain  it. 
Figure  2,  represents  models  of  two  pumps ;  the  com¬ 
mon  well-pump  and  force-pump.  The  former  is 
made  of  a  glass  stock  or  cylinder,  in  which  the 
valves  are  enclosed,  and  through  which  they  may 
be  viewed.  If  the  vessel  under  the  stand  is  filled 
with  water,  it  may  be  pumped  dry,  and  the  whole 
philosophy  of  Atmospheric  and  Hydrostatic  pres¬ 
sure  be  rendered  plain.  The  latter  is  a  brass  cyl¬ 
inder,  enclosing  valves,  which  when  set  in  operation, 
force  the  water  from  the  vessel  below  into  the  glass 
globe,  whence,  on  account  of  the  elasticity  of  the 
air  contained  in  the  globe,  the  liquid  is  ejected  from 
the  pipe,  in  imitation  of  the  fire  engine,  the  philoso¬ 
phy  of  which  it  illustrates. 

Figure  3,  represents  a  mo¬ 
del  of  Archimedes’  screw, 
a  paradoxical  contrivance 
formed  by  a  tube  wound 

Hydrostatic  Bellows,  No.  4.  around  a  Cylinder  and  Set  Screw  Pump,  No.  3. 


29 


226 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


at  such  an  angle  that  water  in  the  vessel  appears,  when  the  machine  is 
turned,  to  run  up  hill.  The  hydrostatic  bellows,  figure  4,  illustrates  the 
pressure  and  power  of  liquids  ;  —  thus,  if  water  be  turned  into  the  funnel  at 
the  top  of  the  column  or  tube,  it  will  cause  the  bellows  to  rise  with  a  con¬ 
siderable  weight  resting  upon  them.  No.  5,  is  a  model  called  Hero’s  foun¬ 
tain,  and  is  a  beautiful  illustration  of  hydrostatic  pressure  and  the  elasticity 
of  air  by  which  water  is  ejected,  as  a  miniature  fountain,  to  a  considerable 
height. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

In  the  sciences  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  which  are  taught  in  all  good 

Schools  at  the 
present  time, 
anatomical 
charts  and  mod¬ 
els  illustrating 
the  functions  of 

the  several  parts  ofthe  body,  or  their 
philosophy  in  the  system, are  found 
necessary.  The  cuts,  1,  2  and  3, 
exhibit  something  of  the  anatomi¬ 
cal  structure  of  the  eye,  together 
with  the  illustration  of  optical  phi¬ 
losophy  as  seen  in  that  organ.  No.  4  represents  the'  “  spectacle  instru¬ 
ment.”  The  object  of  this  instrument  is  to  show  the  reason  why  the  con¬ 
cave  glass  is  suitable  for  one  eye,  under  certain  conditions,  and  the  convex 
glass,  in  different  circumstances,  is  better  suited  to  the  necessities  of  another ; 
or  in  other  words,  to  show  why  the  boy  cannot  see  with  his  grandfather’s 
specs.  Every  School  in  which  these  studies  are  pursued,  should  be  provided 
with  such  facilities. 

A  Maniken  or  model  of  the  human  figure,  with  the  muscles  and  other 
parts  removable  at  pleasure,  and  of  the  form  and  color  of  life,  will  be  found 
of  great  use  and  value  in  this  study.  A  set  of  physiological  plates,  at  least, 
should  be  in  every  good  School. 


It  was  not  the  design  of  this  chapter,  nor  is  it  compatible  with  the  space 
allotted  to  it  in  this  work,  to  attempt  to  notice  all  the  different  articles  of 
apparatus,  which  might  properly  be  placed  in  the  cases  of  a  liberally  fur¬ 
nished  School.  The  object  of  the  chapter  is  only  to  designate  those  arti¬ 
cles  under  the  first  class,  which  are  considered  indispensable  to  a  well  ap- 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


227 


pointed  District  School ;  and  then  to  notice,  in  a  general  way,  those  instru¬ 
ments  which  would  be  of  greatest  interest  and  utility  in  the  more  liberally 
furnished  institutions.  We  have  only  written  of  certain  individual  appa¬ 
ratus  belonging  to  the  various  general  orders,  and  what  has  been  written 
is  intended  to  be  only  suggestive  of  the  general  subject.  We  cannot  speak 
of  the  different  classes  of  the  apparatus,  much  less  the  various  parts  and 
characteristics  of  each.  Very  many  instruments  are  made  to  illustrate  the 
same  principle,  each  differing  somewhat  from  the  others,  and  yet  all  may  be 
good.  The  differences  in  construction  arise  from  the  demand,  some  pur¬ 
chasers  requiring  highly  finished,  expensive  articles,  while  others  prefer 
those  of  lower  cost. 

An  apparatus,  if  well  constructed,  will  last  a  life-time;  and  purchasers 
would  do  well  to  remember  that  the  best  articles  are  in  the  end  the  cheapest. 

There  are  many  manufactories  where  school  apparatus  is  constructed* 
and  it  would  be  invidious,  in  a  work  of  this  character,  to  designate  any 
particular  place  where  such  may  be  procured.  Those  who  are  interested  in 
the  manufacture  or  sale  of  such  articles,  give  sufficient  advertisement  of  the 
fact  in  the  School  Journals  and  other  papers.  On  application  being  made, 
there  would  be,  doubtless,  catalogues  sent,  descriptive  of  the  stock  with 
prices  annexed,  so  that  purchasers  might  suit  themselves. 

Purchasers  may  also  be  provided  with  pamphlets  by  the  manufacturers* 
which  give  special  information  as  to  the  use  of  each  instrument  or  set.  No 
fears  need  then  be  entertained  of  the  efficacy  of  the  apparatus,  if  used  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  directions  prescribed. 

The  editor  is  under  an  obligation  to  several  apparatus  manufacturers  and 
dealers,  for  the  use  of  such  cuts  as  have  been  taken  from  their  catalogues 
to  illustrate  this  chapter.  The  names  of  the  publishers  of  the  catalogues 
from  which  they  have  been  taken,  would  have  been  attached  to  the  plates, 
had  it  been  consistent  with  the  nature  of  this  work. 

CASE  OR  CLOSET  FOR  APPARATUS. 

It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  chapters  on  the  construction  of  School- 
houses,  that  some  provision  has  been  made,  in  every  instance,  for  the  keep¬ 
ing  and  preserving  of  such  apparatus  as  would  receive  injury  by  constant 
exposure  in  the  School-room.  Instead  of  wooden  closet  doors,  sash  doors 
with  glass,  where  deemed  advisable,  might  be  substituted.  The  glass  should 
be  of  good  quality.  The  panes  should  be  of  large  size,  in  order  to  give  the 
most  light  and  to  exclude  all  particles  of  dust.  The  door  should  be  fur¬ 
nished  with  a  good  lock,  that  it  might  be  closed  against  all  intruders. 
Within,  the  shelves  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  raised  or  lowered, 
so  as  to  suit  the  height  of  different  instruments,  and  that 'all  the  apparatus 
may  be  exposed  to  view,  thus  adding  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  room. 


228 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Every  article  should  be  so  placed  that  it  might  be  easily  taken  out,  and  at 
the  same  time  show  to  the  best  advantage.  The  light,  small  articles 
might  be  hung  at  the  back  of  the  closet,  on  small  hooks,  while  the  larger 
and  heavier  ones  should  occupy  the  shelves.  There  should  be  a  place  for 
every  thing,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  every  thing  in  the 
place  allotted  to  it.  Neatness,  order  and  convenience  will  thus  be  secured. 

In  those  Schools  where  the  ordinary  closet  would  not  be  sufficiently  large 
to  accommodate  the  apparatus,  a  neat  case  should  be  prepared  of  the  required 
length  and  height,  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  stuff  and  closely  joined  to¬ 
gether.  The  doors  should  be  made  like  large  sash  and  filled  with  large, 
strong  panes  of  glass,  well  put  in.  Instead  of  being  hung  on  hinges,  the 
doors  should  be  double  and  made  to  slide  like  sash,  only  horizontally  instead 
of  vertically.  Dust  can  thus  be  more  effectually  prevented  from  entering 
and  injuring  the  apparatus.  The  shelves  should  be  constructed  to  move 
up  and  down  at  pleasure,  like  those  of  a  book  case,  in  order  to  accommo¬ 
date  large  articles  and  facilitate  their  removal  at  pleasure.  One  apartment 
of  this  case  might  accommodate  the  library  of  the  School. 

THE  USE  AND  CARE  OF  APPARATUS. 

Some  general  remarks  in  relation  to  the  handling  of  apparatus,  may  not 
be  inappropriate  at  the  close  of  this  chapter.  The  Teacher  should  under¬ 
stand  liis  subject  thoroughly  before  he  attempts  to  illustrate  it.  The  object 
of  such  illustration  is,  to  teach,  to  convince  and  to  impress  the  subject  on 
the  mind ;  if  the  illustration  is  not  as  complete  and  satisfactory  as  the  ap¬ 
paratus  is  capable  of  making  it,  failure  and  mortification  is  the  result.  Com¬ 
prehending  the  subject  as  clearly  as  possible,  the  Teacher  should  practice 
all  the  experiments  in  private,  that  he  may  be  well  prepared  when  he  comes 
before  his  School  or  class.  He  should  try  them  repeatedly,  in  order  to  be 
perfectly  familiar  with  their  operation,  and  in  order  to  acquire  accurate, 
delicate  and  successful  manipulation.  When  about  to  use  the  apparatus,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  freed  from  dust  or  specks,  which  it  may 
have  contracted  since  it  was  last  used.  When  in  use,  it  should  be  carefully 
treated  and  not  entrusted  to  the  indiscreet  working  of  thoughtless,  careless 
children.  Children  should  not  be  permitted  to  handle,  or  even  to  touch 
any  article,  except  by  the  express  permission  of  the  Teacher.  Not  even  a 
black-board,;  to  say  nothing  of  anything  else  more  liable  to  accident,  injury 
and  abuse,  should  be  used  by  the  scholars,  unless  under  the  eye  of  the 
Teacher. 

Sometimes  a  Teacher  may  find  a  portion  of  his  apparatus  not  in  complete 
working  order.  Something  in  the  complicated  machinery,  very  trifling, 
perhaps,  is  wrong.  A  little  care,  a  little  management  and  study,  and  a 
little  patience  (always  a  cardinal  virtue  in  a  Teacher,)  will,  in  most  cases, 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


229 


make  all  right;  if  not,  no  bungling,  careless  hand  should  be  permitted  to 
attempt  its  repair,  but  it  should  be  put  carefully  by,  that  a  proper  person 
may  be  employed  to  investigate  the  mischief  and  apply  the  remedy. 

For  the  greater  security  of  the  property  of  the  School,  the  article  of  agree¬ 
ment  between  the  Teacher  and  the  Board  should  be  so  written,  as  to  make 
the  Teacher  individually  responsible  for  all  damage  to  School  furniture, 
windows,  apparatus,  &c.,  caused  by  his  own  misuse,  carelessness  or  neglect. 
Such  a  specification  would  insure  interest  and  attention  in  those  matters, 
which  are  so  often  neglected,  because  the  Teacher  would  have  a  pecuniary 
interest  in  their  preservation.  No  teacher  should  be  employed  who  would 
not  willingly  assume  such  an  obligation. 

After  the  apparatus  has  been  used,  it  should  be  carefully  examined  and 
immediately  put  in  the  case.  Every  particle  of  dust,  dirt,  soot,  oil  or  water 
which  may  disfigure,  corrode  or  injure  the  instrument  should  be  removed. 
Every  thing  should  be  put  by  in  complete  order ;  and  if  thus  treated,  and 
occasionally  examined  when  not  in  use,  a  case  of  apparatus  will  last  a  long 
time,  and  preserve  all  its  excellence  and  much  of  its  original  lustre  and 
beauty. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


23C? 


X.  IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


ON  THE  REPAIRING,  ENLARGEMENT  AND  REMODELING  OF  OLD  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

At  first  view,  it  may  seem  strange  to  the  enthusiastic  educationist  and 
to  the  progressive  Teacher,  that  a  work  of  this  kind  should  countenance  the 
use,  much  less  favor  the  improvement  of  the  “  Old  School-hcuse.”  But  a 
moment’s  reflection  will  probably  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that,  in  certain  cir¬ 
cumstances,  this  is  not  only  expedient  but  proper  and  desirable.  The  feel¬ 
ing  that  rejects  every  thing  old  solely  because  it  is  old,  and  embraces  every 
new  idea  merely  on  account  of  its  novelty,  few  will  either  avow  or  even 
justify.  Yet  such  in  practice,  if  not  in  creed,  must  be  the  principle  of  those 
who  object  to  the  use  of  any  but  new  and  modern  buildings  for  School 
purposes. 

It  is  here  freely  admitted,  that  a  pleasantly  located,  properly  constructed 
and  commodiously  furnished  School-house,  is  of  primaay  importance  to  the 
successful  training  of  the  youth  of  a  community ;  and  that,  without  these 
essential  qualities,  no  building  should  continue  to  be  used.  Still,  the  old 
house,  if  carefully  examined,  may  be  found  to  embrace  the  elements  of 
most  of  these  requisites,  or  it  may  even  be  found  to  possess  them  all,  with 
jiroper  modifications.  In  neither  case,  therefore,  is  there  any  valid  reason 
for  a  change.  In  both  cases,  economy  of  feeling,  equally  with  economy  of 
money,  should  decide  against  its  abandonment.  The  fathers  and  mothers  — 
the  whole  adult  population  —  of  the  neighborhood,  may  have  received  their 
education,  such  as  it  is,  in  the  old  School- house-.  That  it  was  not  better 
is  not  the  fault  of  the  building,  but  of  the  system  of  instruction  then  preva¬ 
lent  ;  and  if  a  better  system  can  .be  successfully  administered  within  its 
venerable  walls,  why  demolish  them,  and  with  them  so  many  mementoes 
of  the  past  ?  —  The  fond  memories  of  the  aged,  the  fast  mellowing  as¬ 
sociations  of  middle-life,  the  still  coveted  sports  of  the  youth  and  the 
maiden  just  withdrawn  from  School,  — all  cluster  and  cling  around  the  old 
School-house,  and  find  there  a  common  starting  point  in  life  — a  common 
meeting-place  of  feeling.  Every  shady  lane  which  leads  to  it,  every  tree 
that  lends  it  shade,  every  nook  and  corner  in  the  play-ground,  almost  every 
stone  or  timber  in  its  wall,  tell  the  same  story  to  father  and  son  —  to  mother 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


231 


and  daughter,  and  bring  the  old  and  the  young  within  the  kindly  influence 
of  the  same  common  feelings.  These  feelings  are  as  humanizing  and  as  de¬ 
sirable  as  they  are  natural.  As  a  people  we  are  too  unregardful  of  them. 
It  is  not  the  province  of  this  work  to  discuss  the  question,  whether  those 
frequent  changes  of  residence,  of  pursuits  and  of  association,  which  charac¬ 
terize  our  country,  are  cither  promotive  of  its  true  progress  or  of  individual 
prosperity  and  happiness ;  but  the  assertion  may  be  hazarded,  that  our  edu¬ 
cational  system  should  not  unnecessarily  be  made  the  subject,  in  any  of  its 
parts,  of  this  national  peculiarity.  Let  it  be  always  borne  in  mind,  that 
that  system,  when  properly  understood  and  administered,  has  committed  to 
it  the  culture  of  the  sympathies  as  much  as  that  of  the  intellect  —  the 
feelings  of  the  heart  as  well  as  the  powers  of  the  head. 

It  is  no  more  the  purpose  of  the  Common  School  system  to  shock  the 
feelings  and  the  good  sense  of  the  community  by  abandoning  old  School- 
houses,  without  sufficient  reason,  than  it  is  to  disturb  our  relations  with  the 
past,  by  utterly  ignoring  all  old  systems  of  teaching.  Its  great  objects  are 
improvement,  substitution,  extension  ;  but  each  in  its  order.  Improvement 
first,  where  safely  practicable,  of  old  buildings,  old  arrangements  and  old 
modes;  substitution,  next,  when  unavoidable,  of  new  buildings  for  old,  new 
arrangements  for  old,  and  new  modes  for  old ;  lastly,  extension  of  the  full 
benefit  of  this  general  change,  be  it  by  improvement  or  substitution,  to 
every  member  of  the  community  without  stint  or  exception ;  —  in  a  word 
the  object  is  to  “  prove  all  things  and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good.” 

It  is  not  the  design  of  these  remarks  to  advocate  the  retention  of  every 
old  School-house,  merely  because  it  is  of  long  standing  and  venerable.  On 
the  contrary,  it  is  both  admitted  and  asserted  that  the  age  of  a  bad  School¬ 
building,  like  that  of  any  other  ancient  enormity,  should  only  constitute  an 
additional  reason  for  its  speedy  removal.  The  design  merely  is,  to  bespeak 
caution  in  tearing  down  or  changing.  It  is  a  serious  thing,  unnecessarily 
to  tax  the  means  of  a  district  by  the  erection  of  a  new  School-house,  when, 
at  slight  cost,  the  old  one  might  have  been  made  to  answer  all  reasonable 
purposes.  It  is  a  no  less  serious  thing,  to  tax  the  growing  and  often  small 
popularity  of  the  system  itself,  with  such  a  load  of  uncalled  for  expense.  It 
will  also  frequently  be  found,  in  the  end,  a  very  unpleasant  and  disturbing 
thing,  to  change  old  habits  and  ways  to  School,  by  the  selection  of  a  new 
site,  as  wrell  as  the  erection  of  a  new  house;  —  thus  generating  discontents 
and  contentions  about  comparative  accommodations  and  distances,  which 
were  never  thought  of  in  reference  to  the  old  School-house.  If  all  these 
facts  and  considerations  are  fairly  and  fully  taken  into  view,  it  may  pos¬ 
sibly  be  discovered  that  those  radical  defects,  which  should  alone  condemn, 
are  absent,  while  enough  good  qualities  to  save,  are  present  in  the  old  School- 
house  ;  and  that  its  actual  defects  are  only  such  as  prudent  skill  and  a  small 


232 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


outlay  of  money  might  remedy.  If  so,  economy,  policy  and  right  feeling 
should  decide  against  a  change. 

On  the  other  hand,  should  the  old  building,  or  its  location,  be  found  so 
utterly  deficient  in  those  qualities  which  are  essential  to  health,  comfort, 
convenience  and  progress  in  study,  as  to  be  not  merely  injurious  to  the 
youth  of  the  vicinity,  but  incapable  of  affording  them  full  justice  in  all  these 
particulars,  no  secondary  considerations  should  prevent  its  immediate  aban¬ 
donment.  The  question  then  ceases  to  be  one  of  expediency  or  feeling,  and 
becomes  one  of  duty. 

In  the  investigation  necessary  to  decide  this  question  properly,  certain 
principles  are  to  be  regarded,  the  correct  application  of  which  will  usually 
lead  to  the  right  conclusion.  These  relate,  1,  To  the  position ;  2,  To  the 
construction,  or  size  and  form ;  and  3,  to  the  furniture,  of  the  old  house.  In 
considering  these  points  separately,  it  will  be  found  that  some  amount  to 
radical  defects  which  admit  of  no  change ;  while  others  are  only  incidental 
and  may  be  removed. 

I.  DEFECTS  IN  POSITION  OF  OLD  HOUSES. 

The  wrong  location  of  a  School-house  is  one  of  those  defects  which  does 
not  often  admit  of  remedy ;  and  if  radically  defective,  the  sooner  a  proper 
site  is  secured  and  the  old  one  abandoned,  the  better  it  will  be  in  most  cases. 
Still,  as  there  are  some  defects  connected  with  location  which  do  admit  of 
improvement,  so  as  to  render  the  position  sufficiently  proper  and  safe  to  be 
retained,  the  subject  demands  careful  consideration.  The  whole  question 
of  location  having  been  treated  of,  in  the  second  chapter  of  this  Manual,  the 
general  principles  involved  in  it  need  not  here  be  repeated.  Certain  de¬ 
fects  and  mainly  those  which  admit  of  remedy,  with  the  nature  of  that 
remedy,  will  now  only  be  discussed.  These  relate  to  the  situation  of  the 
School-lot,  1,  as  to  health ;  2,  as  to  size ;  3,  as  to  retirement ;  and  4,  as  to 
accessibility.  Each  of  these  points,  for  greater  clearness,  will  be  considered, 
in  the  first  place,  in  relation  to  country  Schools  ;  and  secondly,  in  relation 
to  those  in  towns. 

1.  DEFECTS  IN  POSITION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Want  of  Healthfulness  :  This  is  one  of  those  defects  which  are  most 
frequently  irremediable ;  and  if  the  injurious  cause  be  inherent  in  the  po¬ 
sition,  a  change  of  location  should  at  once  be  made,  without  reference  to 
cost  or  other  consequences. 

A  low  damp  situation,  which  constantly  subjects  the  Pupils  to  the  noxious 
influence  of  unwholesome,  or  deprives  them  of  a  full  and  free  supply  of  pure 
air,  should  immediately  be  abandoned.  For  the  same  reason,  those  high 
bleak  sites  which  expose  them  to  the  effects  of  every  storm,  both  in  School 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


233 


and  on  the  play-ground,  will  be  found  injurious  to  the  health  of  body  and 
mind,  and  proper  to  be  dispensed  with. 

There  are,  however,  certain  defects  in  situation,  which,  though  detri¬ 
mental  to  present  health  and  comfort,  may  admit  of  remedy,  so  as  to 
justify  the  retention  of  the  site  for  School  purposes.  Bleakness  in  winter, 
and  exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  are  not  always  necessarily 
caused  by  an  improper  local  position.  The  protection  of  a  closefence  and 
of  a  grove,  or  even  a  row,  of  trees  on  the  north  side  of  the  lot,  would,  in 
many  cases,  obviate  this  bleakness ;  and  a  sufficiency  of  properly  placed 
shade-trees,  could  easily  be  made  to  guard  against  the  summer’s  sun.  For 
these  purposes,  the  most  rapidly  growing  trees,  and  those  of  as  large  size 
as  can  be  successfully  transplanted,  should  be  selected.  Buttonwoods,  lo¬ 
custs,  elms,  maples,  and  willows,  of  sufficient  size  to  afford  almost  imme¬ 
diate  shelter  and  shade,  can  be  removed  with  success,  if  taken  up  at  the 
right  season,  and  with  a  sufficient  ball  of  earth  to  their  roots.  To  ensure 
their  growth,  each  should  have  the  support  of  a  stake  for  the  first  year,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  top  should  be  lopped  off.  These  precautions, 
with  the  frequent  watering  of  their  roots  in  summer,  which  the  Pupils 
could  easily  be  so  interested  in  them  as  to  attend  to,  would  ensure  the 
growth  of  a  sufficient  number  to  effect  the  object  in  view. 

The  care  of  trees  planted  on  School- grounds,  should  always  be  commit¬ 
ted  to  the  Pupils.  Not  only  will  this  ensure  the  necessary  supply  of  water 
to  them,  but  prove  the  best  mode  of  guarding  them  from  injury.  When 
thus  given  over  to  their  care,  they  become  their  own  property,  and  there 
will  be  little  danger  of  damage,  which  is,  after  all,  more  frequently  com¬ 
mitted  through  want  of  thought,  than  from  a  mischievous  or  evil  disposi¬ 
tion. 

But  even  trees  are  sometimes  a  nuisance  to  the  School,  and  the  “  wood¬ 
man’s  axe”  becomes  necessary.  Some  houses,  placed  “  in  the  woods,”  are 
so  surrounded  and  smothered  up  by  trees,  as  to  suffer  both  from  want  of 
light  and  from  continued  dampness.  This  is  frequently  the  case  in  the 
pine  and  beech  woods  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State ;  and  there  the  danger 
from  falling  branches,  or  even  trees,  is  added  to  the  inconvenience.  In 
such  cases  the  use  of  the  axe  becomes  indispensable  ;  but  it  should  always 
be  employed  subject  to  the  rules  of  prudence  and  good  taste.  Danger  may¬ 
be  removed,  sunshine  let  in,  and  a  free  circulation  of  air  secured,  without 
felling  allot  those  fine  old  denizens  of  the  forest,  whose  presence  is  so  beau¬ 
tiful,  whose  shade  is  so  refreshing,  whose  shelter  is  so  protective,  and  whose 
restoration,  when  once  removed,  is  impossible  in  the  life-time  of  the  un¬ 
thinking  destroyer. 

Dampness  of  situation  may  sometimes  be  obviated  by  drainage.  A  few 
dollars  expended  in  digging  a  ditch  or  sewer,  to  carry  to  the  neighboring 
30 


234 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


brook  or  ravine  the  stagnant  contents  of  the  frog-pond  near  the  School- 
house,  or  to  draw  away  the  surplus  water  of  the  spring,  which,  for  want  of 
such  outlet,  converts  the  surrounding  parts  into  a  marsh  or  quagmire,  may 
often  relieve  the  site  of  all  unwholesoineness  proceeding  from  these  causes, 
and  save  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  location.  This  cheap  and  simple 
expedient  will  also  restore  the  spring  to  its  freshness  and  purity,  and  en¬ 
large  the  bounds  of  the  play-ground. 

The  very  lots  attached  to  some  Schools  are  often  deformed  and  rendered 
unwholesome  and  inconvenient,  by  mud-puddles  and  pools  of  impure  water. 
A  day’s  work  of  the  township  plough  and  scraper,  and  of  a  team  of  horses 
with  a  few  willing  hands  set  in  motion  by  right  hearts,  would  remove  this 
disgrace,  and  restore  the  free  and  safe  use  of  the  ground  to  its  rightful  owners. 

Some  Boards  of  Directors  and  many  Teachers  seem,  by  their  disregard 
of  these  things,  to  think  that  they  are  beyond  their  sphere  of  duty.  But 
this  is  a  very  erroneous  view  of  their  responsibility  in  the  matter.  It  is  as 
clearly  the  duty  of  the  Board  to  adopt  all  necessary  means  for  health  and 
comfort  in  the  surroundings  of  the  School-house,  as  in  its  construction  and 
interior  arrangements.  And  the  Teacher  who  will,  without  all  proper  effort 
to  remove  it,  daily  permit  his  Pupils  to  inhale  the  noxious  miasma  of  a  stag¬ 
nant  pool,  is  as  guilty  of  neglect  of  duty,  as  he  who  fails  to  attend  to  the 
healthful  ventilation  of  the  School-room.  If  there  be  any  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  degree  of  his  culpability  in  this  matter  and  that  of  the  Directors, 
his  is  probably  the  greater ;  for  he  cannot  possibly  plead  ignorance  of  the 
fact,  while  they  probably  may. 

2.  Want  of  Size  :  As  already  remarked,  in  the  second  chapter  of  this 
Manual,  no  new  rural  School-house  should  be  placed  on  less  than  half  an 
acre  of  ground,  but  if  obtainable,  a  full  acre  will  be  preferable  on  every  ac¬ 
count.  Still,  where  a  good,  or  an  improvable  house  belongs  to  the  District, 
standing  on  even  the  quarter  of  an  acre,  it  should  not  be  abandoned,  and 
another  site  procured,  solely  on  that  account.  If  the  position  be  otherwise 
good,  embracing  the  desirable  qualities  of  healthfulness,  centralness,  acces¬ 
sibility  and  beauty,  it  should  be  retained,  and  every  effort  made  to  enlarge 
the  lot  by  purchase  from  a  neighboring  proprietor.  In  most  cases  this  can 
be  effected ;  particularly  if  his  refusal  to  sell  would  cause  the  removal  of 
the  School  to  an  inconvenient  distance  from  him.  In  some  instances,  how¬ 
ever,  it  will  occur  that  adjoining  land  owners  consider  the  close  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  School  an  inconvenience  rather  than  a  benefit,  and  may  be  wil¬ 
ling  to  pay  a  good  price  for  the  house  and  lot,  in  order  to  effect  its  removal 
to  a  greater  distance.  When  the  lot  cannot  possibly  be  enlarged  in  any 
other  direction,  and  when  the  price  thus  offered  is  sufficient  to  justify  the 
change,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  sufficient  extent  of  ground  should  not  be 
procured,  in  this  way,  at  some  other  equally  eligible  point. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


235 


Little  more  may  be  said  on  this  subject.  The  School-lot  is  either  large 
enough,  or  it  is  not.  If  large  enough  and  proper  in  other  respects,  it  should 
be  retained;  if  not,  but  otherwise  eligible,  it  should  by  all  means  be  spee¬ 
dily  increased  to  a  reasonable  size  ;  if  this  cannot  be  done,  Directors  should 
be  extremely  cautious  in  expending  any  money,  not  absolutely  indispen¬ 
sable,  on  the  lot  or  the  building.  The  time  will  come,  and  that  speedily, 
when  public  opinion,  if  not  the  law  of  the  land,  will  require  an  ample  space 
of  ground  to  each  Common  School-house  in  the  State ;  and  if  this  quantity 
be  not  procurable  at  one  point,  it  will  at  some  other ;  and  the  permanent 
arrangements  of  the  School  should  not  be  made  till  this  is  secured. 

Should  a  general  law  ever  be  passed,  authorizing  the  appropriation  of 
ground  for  School  purposes,  on  paying  the  full  value,  it  ought,  by  all  means, 
to  contain  a  provision  that  not  less  than  a  certain  specified  quantity  —  say, 
half  an  acre  in  rural  districts,  and  eighty  or  a  hundred  feet  in  front  by 
twice  that  extent  in  depth,  in  towns  —  should  constitute  a  School-lot. 

3.  Want  of  Retirement  :  The  close  vicinity  to  the  tavern,  the  canal 
lock,  the  busy,  noisy  and  dusty  cross-road,  and  such  other  annoyances,  has 
been  already  designated  as  undesirable,  if  not  positively  injurious,  to  the 
School.  When  these  neighbors  are  felt  to  be  really  detrimental,  either  to 
morals  or  study,  the  only  remedy  is  a  change  in  the  location  of  the  School, 
regardless  of  all  other  considerations  to  the  contrary.  When  only  parti¬ 
ally  annoying  and  unpleasant,  the  effect  may  sometimes  be  modified  or  en¬ 
tirely  remedied  by  the  enlargement  of  the  School-lot,  the  enclosure  of  it 
with  a  high  fence  on  the  side  toward  the  annoyance,  and  by  its  proper  ar¬ 
rangement  and  preparation  as  a  play-ground. 

If  Scholars  have  an  ample  and  well  arranged  space  of  their  own  for  their 
sports  and  games,  they  will  not  be  likely  to  leave  it  for  the  grosser  attrac¬ 
tions  of  adult  excess.  But  if  all  precautions  of  this  kind  fail,  a  sale  of  the 
old  and  the  purchase  of  a  new  site  should  take  place ;  for  the  protection  of 
their  morals  should  be  the  first  care  of  the  guardians  of  youth.  Fortunately, 
too,  in  these  cases,  a  change  of  site  can  generally  be  effected  without  pe¬ 
cuniary  loss ;  the  very  reasons  which  render  a  lot  improper  for  a  School, 
causing  it  to  be  desirable  and  valuable  for  other  purposes ;  while  the  retired 
spot  chosen  for  the  new  School-house,  will  be  obtained,  in  most  instances, 
for  a  less  price  than  that  realized  for  the  one  sold. 

4.  Want  of  Accessibility  :  This  is  here  nearly  synonymous  with  want 
of  centralness ;  and  when  a  School-house  is  so  placed  as  not  to  be  reasona¬ 
bly  accessible  to  any  considerable  number  of  the  youth  for  whose  benefit 
it  was  erected,  it  has  failed  in  its  object,  as  to  them,  and  the  injustice  should 
at  once  be  corrected.  In  some  cases  this  can  only  be  effected  by  a  change 
in  location ;  but  frequently  it  is  within  the  reach  of  other  means.  The 
opening  of  a  cross  road  from  one  leading  thorough-fare  to  another,  or  the 


236 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


erection  of  a  bridge  over  a  stream  or  two,  may  remove  this  objection,  and 
cause  the  retention  of  a  site,  in  every  other  respect  desirable. 

It  is  time  that  the  interests  and  convenience  of  the  rising  generation 
should  be  consulted  and  promoted  in  all  public  arrangements,  relating  to  or 
bearing  upon  them  ;  and,  if  proper  representations  be  made,  the  Courts  and 
their  Road  Viewers  will,  no  doubt,  be  found  willing  to  grant  all  proper  and 
necessary  facilities  for  reaching  the  School.  When  requisite.  School  Direc¬ 
tors  should  demand  these,  in  their  official  capacity. 


2.  DEFECTS  IN  POSITION  OF  TOWN  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Want  of  Healthfulness:  When  this  arises  from  natural  causes,  such 
as  lowness  and  dampness  of  situation,  the  only  remedy  is  removal.  But 
sometimes  it  is  caused  by  the  improper  structure  or  arrangement  of  the 
building.  In  that  case,  if  the  lot  be  otherwise  eligible,  either  a  new  build¬ 
ing  or  the  remodeling  of  the  old,  will  remove  the  evil.  Not  unfrequently 
a  town  School-house  is  rendered  insalubrious  by  the  vicinity  of  a  chandlery, 
butcher  shop,  or  factory  of  a  kind  injurious  to  health.  Such  establishments 
are  generally  nuisances  at  common  law,  and  their  abatement,  in  protection 
of  the  School,  is  an  act  of  justice  which  no  court  and  jury  should  hesitate 
to  enforce,  and  which  it  is  the  imperative  duty  of  the  proper  Directors  to 
demand . 

Very  often,  the  healthfulness  of  the  town  School  may  be  greatly  pro¬ 
moted  by  the  filling  up,  grading  and  leveling  of  the  lot,  and  the  planting 
of  it  with  trees,  shrubbery  and  flowers.  This  pleasant  duty  should  never 
be  neglected  ;  and  if  proper  measures  be  adopted  by  Directors  and  Teachers, 
the  Pupils  may  be  made  to  effect  a  great  portion  of  it,  and  to  keep  the 
grounds  in  good  order,  after  the  first  labor  has  been  performed. 

2.  Want  of  Size  :  In  towns  this  defect  cannot,  ordinarily,  be  as  readily 
obviated  by  the  purchase  of  adjoining  ground,  as  in  the  country.  But  when 
this  is  impossible,  and  when  a  removal  becomes  expedient,  the  small  lot  in 
the  crowded  part  of  the  town,  with  its  old  and  incommodious  School-house, 
will  generally  sell  for  a  good  price,  and  the  Directors  be  thus  enabled  to  ac¬ 
quire  an  ample  lot  and  erect  an  improved  School-building,  within  reasona¬ 
ble  distance  of  all  the  Pupils.  To  secure  a  full  sized  lot,  in  a  high,  airy  and 
accessible  position,  the  difference  of  two  or  three  squares  in  distance  should 
never  be  regarded. 

3.  Want  of  Retirement  :  In  towns  the  neighborhood  of  demoralizing 
causes  cannot  lie  so  easily  evaded,  as  in  the  country ;  for  the  tavern-yard, 
the  street-corner,  or  the  crowded  thoroughfare  is  always  at  hand.  All  that 
can  be  done,  to  counteract  these  influences,  is  to  provide  ample  play-ground, 
and  render  it  as  attractive  as  possible,  during  those  intervals  when  the  Pu- 


IMPROVEMENT  CF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


237 


pils  should  rightfully  be  there ;  and  to  require  them  to  proceed  directly  to 
and  from  School,  at  the  proper  hours. 

But  there  are  physical  causes  of  disturbance  which  should  always  be 
avoided,  if  practicable,  in  the  location  of  town  Schools.  The  rattling  of 
carts  and  wagons  on  the  rough  pavement  of  the  main  street,  is  a  disturbance 
to  the  School,  of  a  serious  nature.  So  is  the  noise  of  most  kinds  of  fac¬ 
tories,  mills  and  machine  shops,  driven  by  steam.  The  rail-way  with  its 
whistles,  bells,  puffing  of  steam  and  rattling  of  cars,  forms  another  almost 
intolerable  annoyance.  Ail  these  had  better  be  avoided  in  original  selec¬ 
tions  of  School  sites,  and  gotten  rid  of  in  the  case  of  old  Schcol-houses,  by 
a  speedy  sale  and  removal  to  some  more  quiet  part  of  the  town ;  these  evils 
being  irremediable. 

4.  Want  of  Accessibility  :  This  is  a  defect  to  which  town  Schools  are  not 
often  liable.  It  is  sometimes  urged  that  the  distance  to  the  School  is  too 
great ;  but  this  is,  most  frequently,  a  captious  objection.  The  whole  breadth 
of  most  of  our  towns  would  not  be  more  than  a  healthy  walk,  even  for  small 
children ;  and  when  compared  with  the  distance  which  the  youngest  Pupils 
in  the  country,  have  to  walk,  whose  health  certainly  does  not  sutler  from 
this  cause,  it  seems  perfectly  unfounded. 

In  some  few  cases,  however,  danger  becomes  an  element  in  the  ease.  — 
Where  a  rail-way  traverses  a  town  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  streets, 
or  a  canal  or  river  divides  it,  rendering  the  crossing  of  these  impediments 
perilous  to  young  children,  means  should  be  adopted  to  avoid  the  risk,  by 
preventing  the  necessity  of  passing  them  on  the  way  to  and  from  School: 
This  may,  in  most  cases,  be  effected,  by  adopting  those  impediments  as  the 
dividing  lines  between  the  bounds  of  the  different  Schools.  But  if  this  is 
not  practicable,  the  existence  of  danger  arising  from  these  sources  should 
form  an  influential  reason  for  changing  the  location  of  the  School. 

In  seeking  a  new  site  for  a  town  School,  a  corner  lot  at  the  intersection 
of  two  streets  will  be  preferable,  as  affording  greater  accessibility  from  every 
direction.  Such  a  position  will  also  secure  more  open  space  and  a  freer  cir¬ 
culation  of  air,  inasmuch  as  the  house  can  never  have  a  very  close  neigh¬ 
bor  on  more  than  one  side.  A  lot  at  the  corner  of  a  main  street  and  a  pub¬ 
lic  alley  is  the  next  best  position,  as  affording,  to  some  extent,  the  same 
advantages.  A  narrow  lot  in  the  middle  of  a  block  or  square,  with  houses 
likely  to  come  into  contact  with  the  School  on  both  sides,  should  never  be 
purchased,  while  a  more  eligible  situation  can  be  obtained,  within  any  rea¬ 
sonable  distance. 

II.  DEFECTS  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  OLD  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

A  School-house  may  be  insufficient  for  the  due  accommodation  of  the 
mixed  or  primary  School,  for  which  it  was  erected,  on  account  of  deficiency: 
1.  In  size  or  area ;  2.  In  height,  or  distance  from  floor  to  ceiling;  3.  In 


238 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


windows,  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air;  and  4.  In  special  means  of 
ventilation.  Or,  though  not  unadapted  to  its  original  purpose,  a  School- 
house  may  require  enlargement  and  alteration  to  fit  it  for  a  higher  grade 
of  School. 

Each  of  these  classes  of  cases  will  be  briefi}''  considered  with  reference 
to  the  appropriate  remedies;  but  in  regard  to  both,  it  may  be  remarked,  in 
the  first  place,  that  money  for  extensive  repairs  or  alterations  should  never 
be  expended  on  a  building  whose  location  is  liable  to  serious  objections  j 
and,  secondly,  that  the  best  remedy  for  an  old,  small,  illconstructed  building, 
without  a  cellar,  even  if  properly  situated,  is  a  new  one.  Be  such  houses 
repaired  and  altered  as  they  may,  they  will  always  be  old,  insufficient  and 
inconvenient. 

1.  HOUSES  INSUFFICIENT  FOR  THEIR  ORIGINAL  PURPOSE. 

1 .  Deficiency  in  Size  :  It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  more  than  fifty  Pu¬ 
pils  should  not  be  assigned  to  one  Teacher;  and  that  any  less  quantity  of 
floor  space,  in  the  School-room,  than  six  hundred  square  feet,  is  an  insuffi¬ 
cient  provision  for  that  number.  This  space  may  be  twenty  by  thirty 
feet,  about  twenty-two  by  twenty-eight,  or  near  twenty-five  feet  square ; 
but  anything  less  than  this,  which  is  only  an  area  of  three  by  four  feet  for 
each,  will  be  found  inadequate  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  Pupils,  and 
to  the  order  and  progress  of  the  School;  while  a  full  third  more,  being 
an  area  of  four  by  four  feet  for  each  Pupil,  will  be  advantageous  in  every 
respect. 

But  as  there  are  hundreds  of  School-houses  in  the  State,  of  inadequate 
size,  yet  of  proper  position  and  good  material,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  im¬ 
portance  to  enlarge  and  improve  them,  in  accordance  with  correct  princi¬ 
ples. 

Let  the  case  of  a  comparatively  new  School-house,  substantially  built, 
high  in  the  story,  well  located  and  lighted,  and  with  a  good  cellar,  but  only 
twenty  feet  square  in  the  inside,  be  supposed.  It  is  now  designed  for  fifty 
Pupils,  and  the  Directors  wish  to  increase  its  size,  so  as  really  to  accommo¬ 
date  that  number ;  for  they  do  not  feel  at  liberty  to  tear  it  down  and  erect 
another.  How  shall  they  proceed  ?  Probably  the  following  plan  will  be 
the  most  advisable. 

Before  commencing  the  alteration,  they  will  probably  come  to  the  con¬ 
clusion,  that  it  shall  not  merely  consist  of  eight  or  ten  feet  of  an  addition 
to  the  study  room ;  but  that  they  may  as  well  render  the  house  complete  at 
once,  by  including  also  an  entry  or  clothes  room,  and  a  closet  for  books  and 
apparatus.  They  may  perhaps  also  decide  that  the  cellar  under  the  old  part 
is  sufficient  for  all  purposes,  and  that  that  expense  may  be  saved,  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  addition. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLI)  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


239 


These  points  being  settled,  the  end  wall,  which  includes  the  entrance 
door  (marked  A  on  the  opposite  plan)  is  taken  down,  and  an 
addition  of  not  less  than  fifteen  feet  is  put  to  the  building; 
but  if  eighteen  or  even  twenty  feet,  it  will  be  all  the  better. 

At  least  ten  feet  of  this  addition  are  thrown  into  the  main 
School-room,  enlarging  it  to  twenty  by  thirty  feet,  and  the  remaining  five 
or  more  feet,  are  petitioned  off  into  a  vestibule  for  hats,  &c.,and  a  closet  for 
books  and  apparatus.  The  enlarged  building  now  takes  the  form  represented 
by  the  following  plan;  —  A  representing  the  main  School-room;  B  the  en¬ 
try  or  clothes-room ;  and  C  the  book-closet.  Two  addi¬ 
tional  doors,  viz :  One  from  the  entry  into  the  School-room, 
and  the  other  from  the  School-room  to  the  book-closet,  will 
be  rendered  necessary  by  this  change;  and  probably  four 
windows.  If  this  enlarged  study-room  be  properly  spaced 
off  and  provided  w ith  seats,  desks,  platform  and  black-board, 
after  some  of  the  plans  in  Class  II,  in  the  forepart  of  this 
Manual,  it  will  be  found  a  commodious  and  pleasant  house, 
either  for  an  ungraded  or  for  a  Primary  School. 

This  plan  of  enlargement  may  be  applied  to  houses  of  almost  any  dimen¬ 
sions  ;  and  the  effect  will  be  better  if  the  addition  be  so  made  that  there 
shall  be  less  difference  between  the  length  and  breadth,  than  in  the  case 
just  .described. 

With  the  addition  of  a  neat  porch  or  a  portico  in  front,  and  thus  im¬ 
proved,  many  a  School-house  in  the  State,  now  too  small,  and  inconvenient 
in  every  respect,  would  become  a  roomy,  pleasant  and  commodious  build¬ 
ing,  at  comparatively  small  cost.  It  may  be  added,  that  whenever  a  por¬ 
tico  is  added  to  or  constructed  originally  with  a  School-house,  the  gable  end 
or  wall  above  the  columns,  should  always  be  faced  with  weather-boarding, 
and  not  with  plaster.  The  latter  scarcely  ever  stands  the  united  effects  of 
the  weather  and  of  the  mischievous  boys  who  are  found  in  every  School. 

2.  Deficiency  in  Height:  It  has  been  suggested,  in  another  part  of  this 
Manual,  that  the  height  of  the  School-room  from  floor  to  ceiling,  should  not 
be  less  than  twelve  feet  in  small  primary  or  ungraded  Schools ;  and  that  thir¬ 
teen  or  fourteen  would  be  still  better.  But,  inasmuch  as  eight  feet  is  pro¬ 
bably  above  the  average  height  of  ceiling  in  such  houses  throughout  the 
State,  the  question  of  improving  them  in  this  almost  vital  particular,  be¬ 
comes  one  of  great  interest  and  importance. 

When  the  house  is  of  the  proper  size,  the  walls  substantial  and  the  roof 
good,  the  obvious  remedy  is  to  raise  the  latter  and  add  as  many  feet  to  the 
walls  as  will  give  the  required  height.  In  this  case,  a  few  more  hundred 
of  brick,  perch  of  stone,  or  feet  of  lumber,  will  not  cost  much,  and  the  addi- 


20 

30 

*3 

C  >n 

B  ,n 

8 

12 

240 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


tion  should  be  enough  to  give  fourteen  feet  in  the  clear.  Less  than  twelve 
ought  never  to  be  thought  of. 

In  some  cases  the  level  of  the  floor  is  several  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Here  the  floor  may  be  lowered  a  couple  of  feet,  and  the  object 
be  thus  partly  effected  in  a  very  economical  manner.  It  is  true  that  the 
Height  of  the  windows  from  the  floor  will  be  materially  increased  by  this 
change,  but  this  will  be  an  advantage  rather  than  a  detriment  to  the  Schools 
as  it  will  also  save  the  expense  of  altering  and  raising  the  windows,  which 
will  be  indispensable,  if  the  height  of  the  walls  is  increased  and  the  roof 
raised . 

In  some  low  School-houses,  greater  air  space  over-head  has  been  secured 
by  taking  away  the  horizontal  ceiling,  and  lathing  and  plastering  the  rafters 
in  the  form  of  an  arch,  as  high  as  the  collar-beam. 

The  lowering  of  the  floor  two  feet,  and  the  raising  of  the  roof  three  or 
four  feet  by  arching,  in  a  house  originally  'eight  feet  in  story,  would  give  a 
height  of  thirteen,  which  would  be  amply  sufficient.  This  is,  probably,  the 
cheapest  and  readiest  expedient  where  the  circumstances  are  suitable.  But 
be  the  circumstances  what  they  may,  it  is  the  height  of  injustice,  both  to 
the  bodies  and  minds  of  fifty  healthy  children,  whose  first  physical  func¬ 
tions  are  to  breathe  and  to  grow,  to  pack  them  away  in  a  close  den  of  poi¬ 
sonous  air,  twenty  feet  square  and  seven  or  eight  feet  high. 

3.  Deficiencies  in  Windows:  The  worst  kind  of  School-house  windows, 
is  that  which  seems  to  have  been  copied  from  a  blacksmith  shop ;  being  a 
window  of  less  than  the  usual  size,  and  composed  of  two  sash  laid  on  their 
sides,  so  as  to  slide  past  each  other  horizontally  and  not  vertically.  Perhaps 
this  similarity  between  the  windows  of  the  smith-shop  and  the  School-house 
originated  from  the  fact  that  very  many  School-houses  are  nothing  but 
abandoned  smitheries.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  sooner  the  resemblance  in 
this  respect  disappears  the  better,  at  least,  for  the  School. 

The  other  great  defect  in  School  windows,  is,  that  they  are  not  often 
double  hung ;  that  is,  so  arranged,  by  means  of  pulleys  and  cords,  or  some 
other  equivalent  mode,  as  that  the  upper  sash  can  be  lowered  at  pleasure, 
as  well  as  the  knver  one  raised.  They  are  generally,  also,  too  small,  espe¬ 
cially  in  height ;  though  it  often  happens  that  what  they  want  in  size,  is 
made  up,  or  attempted  to  be  made  up,  in  number. 

Where  a  low  building  is  raised,  by  additions  to  the  height  of  the  walls, 
the  windows  can  be  properly  arranged,  not  only  as  to  height,  hanging  and 
position,  but  as  to  number.  Advantage  should  always  be  taken  of  such  a 
change,  to  insert  new  frames  of  a  proper  height,  with  proper  pulleys  and 
cords  for  double  hanging ;  and  to  dispense  with  such  as  are  unnecessary  or 
wrongly  placed.  When  no  such  alteration  in  the  height  of  the  side- wall 
takes  place,  the  upper  sash  may  be  made  to  lower,  by  the  application  of  some 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


241 

one  or  other  of  those  patented  inventions,  which  are  designed  to  supersede 
the  cord  and  pulley,  and  are  readily  inserted.  But,  whether  by  cord  or 
patent  stop,  down  the  upper  sash  should  be  made  to  come,  at  pleasure ;  and, 
if  the  Teacher  can  effect  this  indispensable  and  invaluable  change  in  no 
other  way,  he  can  always  borrow  a  chisel  and  mallet,  and  cut  away  two  or 
three  inches  of  the  support  of  the  upper  sash,  from  at  least  one  window  on 
each  side  of  the  room,  so  that  he  may  lower  them  at  will  and  give  vent  to 
the  foul  air.  A  gimlet-hole  entirely  through  the  upper  cross-piece  of  the 
lower  sash,  and  nearly  through  the  lower  cross-piece  of  the  upper,  where 
they  meet,  will  receive  a  stout  common  nail.  This  will  retain  the  upper 
sash  at  its  full  height  when  not  required  to  be  lowered,  and  will  also  secure 
both  against  being  opened  from  the  outside. 

4.  Deficiencies  in  special  means  for  Ventilation  :  As  remarked  under  the 
head  of  Lighting  and  V entilation,  these  means  are,  the  ventilating  Hue  and  the 
opening  in  the  ceiling.  Neither  need  be  here  further  described.  They  are 
both  applicable  to  all  one  story  School-houses,  and  can  be  inserted  at  small 
cost,  with  little  trouble,  and  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  School.  No  good 
building  should  be  without  them ;  and  the  smaller,  the  lower,  and  the  worse 
the  School-house,  the  greater  is  their  necessity  and  the  more  beneficial  will 
be  their  operation  and  effect. 

In  small  houses  with  low  ceilings  and  low  windows,  Teachers,  not  unfre- 
quently,  inflict  serious  injury  on  themselves  and  their  Pupils  from  the  very 
best  and  kindest  motives.  Such  buildings  being  generally  old  and  open  at 
the  joints  of  the  walls  and  the  floor  and  around  the  windows,  they,  for  the 
purpose  of  “  keeping  out  the  cold,”  carefully  stop  up  all  these  crevices  ;  for¬ 
getful  that  thereby  they  also  keep  out  the  pure  air,  and  injure  their  own 
health  and  that  of  their  Pupils.  A  building  of  this  kind  should  never  be 
thus  made  “air  tight,”  without  having  an  opening  also  made  under  or  near 
the  stove  for  the  admission  of  fresh,  and  one  in  the  ceiling  for  the  discharge 
of  foul,  air. 

2.  enlargement  of  houses  to  accommodate  higher  schools. 

The  grading  of  the  Schools,  which  is  now  contemplated  in  many,  and 
commenced  in  not  a  few,  of  the  rural  Districts,  brings  up  the  question, 
Whether  it  is  better  to  erect  entirely  new  buildings  for  the  higher  Schools, 
or  to  enlarge  some  of  those  heretofore  in  use  under  the  ungraded  system  ? 
It  will  probably  be  found,  in  most  cases,  that  the  construction  of  new  build¬ 
ings  for  the  higher  Schools  will  be  the  more  advisable  course.  The  grading 
of  the  Schools  of  a  District,  by  systematizing  the  studies  and  introducing 
the  more  advanced  branches,  always  increases  the  aggregate  number,  as 
well  as  the  average  attendance  of  Pupils,  in  its  Schools.  This,  with  the 
constant  increase  of  population,  will  render  all  the  former  ungraded  School- 
31 


2-12 


SC flOOL  A RCIIITECTURE. 


houses  necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Primary  Schools  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict.  In  addition  to  this,  the  old  ungraded  houses  will  generally  be  found 
unsuitable,  both  in  size  and  location,  for  the  more  advanced  Schools,  which 
ought  to  be  of  a  different  construction,  and  placed  with  reference  to  a  wider 
extent  of  territory  than  the  primary  or  ungraded  Schools.  But  even  when 
the  latter  are  found  suitable,  in  other  respects,  for  a  higher  grade,  it  will 
mostly  be  inexpedient  to  make  that  use  of  them.  More  opposition  to  tire  gra¬ 
ding  of  the  Schools  in  the  rural  Districts,  has  arisen  from  this  than  any  other 
cause.  Small  children  residing  near  the  houses  thus  elevated  in  grade,  are 
necessarily  sent  to  some  other,  and  that,  too,  generally  at  a  much  greater 
distance  from  them ;  and  unthinking  parents,  who  do  not  appreciate  the 
reasons  for  the  change,  at  once  denounce  it,  and  with  it  the  whole  system 
of  gradation. 

For  these  reasons,  in  most  cases  it  will  he  found  better  in  every  respect 
to  erect  new  buildings  for  the  higher  Schools  of  the  district,  especially  if  it 
he  in  the  country,  and  to  retain  and  arrange  the  former  houses  for  the 
Primary  Schools.  But,  as  the  enlargement  of  old  buildings,  so  as  to  suit 
Schools  of  the  higher  grades,  may,  in  some  cases,  particularly  in  the  towns, 
be  found  expedient,  the  following  suggestions  may  be  of  use. 

If,  in  grading  the  Schools,  the  circumstances  of  the  district  and  the  plans 
of  the  Board  will  only  admit  of  small  Grammar  Schools,  each  with  one 
Teacher,  then,  of  course,  nothing  is  necessary  except  the  erection  of  a  new 
house,  or  the  arrangement  of  an  old  one,  with  somewhat  larger  and  better 
furniture  and  apparatus  than  those  needed  in  a  Primary  School,  so  as  to 
accommodate  forty  or  fifty  Pupils.  Almost  any  of  the  plans  in  Class  I,  of 
this  Manual,  will  be  found  suitable  for  that  purpose 

But  if  the  design  be  to  alter  an  old  house,  so  as  to  accommodate  a  gram¬ 
mar  School  with  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  or  more  Pupils,  and  two  or 
three  Teachers,  considerable  addition  and  alteration  will  become  requisite. 

In  this  case,  the  house  is  supposed  to  be  of  good  size  for  a  Primary  or 
ungraded  School  —  say  twenty-five  by  thirty  feet  —  as  re¬ 
presented  by  the  opposite  plan;  the  door  being  at  A,  the 
Teachers  desk  at  B,  and  the  stove,  with  a  light  flue  or  pipe 
through  the  roof,  over  it,  at  C .  It  is  also  properly  located 
for  the  intended  grade  of  School,  has  good  walls  and  roof,  is 
high  in  the  ceiling,  with  large  windows  properly  constructed, 
and  a  cellar  underneath.  If  it  have  not  all,  or  nearly  all 
these  requisites,  it  will  be  a  waste  of  money  to  attempt  its  alteration.  It  has 
however,  neither  entry,  class-room  nor  closet,  they  being  non-essentials, 
though  very  convenient;  and,  as  the  roof  spans  its  smaller  diameter  and  -is  not 
to  be  disturbed,  any  addition  to  its  size  must  be  made  at  one  or  both  of  the 
ends. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


243 


If  the  intention  is  to  increase  this  house  so  as  to  accommodate  —  sny — 
eighty  Pupils,  with  a  Principal  and  an  Assistant  Teacher,  this  will  require 
the  addition  of  about  twenty-three  feet  to  one  end  of  the  building.  That 
number  of  Pupils  should  have  a  study  room  of  at  least  nine  hundred  square 
Feet,  which  would  here  be  about  twenty -five  by  thirty-seven ;  a  class-room 
of  at  least  sixteen  feet  square;  and  "an  entry  or  clothes-room  of  about  nine 
by  sixteen  feet. 

The  opposite  plan  shows  how  this  may  be  done.  The 
end  wall  with  the  door  in  it,  has  been  taken  down  ;  the  re¬ 
quired  extension  of  twenty-three  feet  has  been  made,  ad¬ 
ding  seven  feet  to  the  study-room  (C),  and  forming  the 
entry  ( B ),  and  the  class-room  (F).  The  outside  door  is  at  (A) ; 
the  Teacher’s  stand  and  black-board  at  (D),  midway  between 
the  doors  leading  to  the  entry  and  the  class-room;  and  the 
smoke  flue  ( E )  is  at  the  intersection  of  the  walls  dividing  the  main-room,  the 
class-room  and  the  entry. 

be  to  enlarge  the  same  building  so  as  to  accommodate  — 
say  —  one  hundred  and  twenty  Pupils  with  a  Principal  and 
two  Assistant  Teachers,  a  very  long  but  still  a  commodious 
house  will  be  the  result.  In  that  case,  a  study-room  cf 
about  sixty  feet  in  length  by  twenty-five  in  breadth,  (C), 
with  two  class-rooms,  (F),  and  two  entrances  aid  clothes- 
rooms,  ( B ),  as  shown  in  the  opposite  plan,  will  be  needed. 
The  whole  length  will  be  about  ninety  feet,  and  the  breadth 
twenty -five,  and  the  interior  arrangement  will  resemble  that 
of  the  house  shown  in  the  Frontispiece,  the  ground  plan  of 
which  may  be  seen  at  page  142 ;  except  that  it  will  be  longer, 
and  will  have  no  division  in  the  study-room. 

In  a  house  thus  arranged  the  sexes  may  be  taught  sepa¬ 
rately  or  together,  as  deemed  most  expedient;  but  in  either  case,  a  separate 
entrance  door  and  clothes  room  (AA)  should  be  assigned  to  each. 

The  several  parts  of  this  plan  are  the  same  as  in  the  next  preceding  one, 
except  that  a  small  platform  and  desk  at  D,  will  be  sufficient  for  the  one 
Teacher  in  charge  of  the  study-room. 

If  the  position  of  the  house  on  the  lot  suit,  the  whole  addition  contem¬ 
plated  by  this  plan,  should  be  made  at  one  end;  thus  saving  the  tearing 
down  and  reconstruction  of  one  end  wall.  In  that  case,  one  entry  and 
class-room  will  be  taken  off  the  untouched  end  of  the  old  building. 

In  towns  it  often  becomes  proper,  in  grading  the  Schools,  to  make  use  of 
the  former  ungraded  buildings ;  and  as  these  are  generally  larger  than  those 
of  the  rural  districts,  the  change  is  more  easy  and  less  expensive.  This 


If  the  object 


B 

A 

25 

0 

09 

a*  T 

.  16 

9 

25 


D 


F 


16 


B 

9 


244 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


was  done,  some  years  ago,  in  the  city  of  Lancaster  with  much  good  effect. 
In  that  district  the  houses  previously  erected  were  all 
uniform  in  size  and  plan.  They  were  one  story  brick 
buildings  with  a  portico  in  front,  each  about  forty  feet 
square,  and  divided  into  two  rooms  for  separate  Schools, 
as  shown  in  the  opposite  plan.  The  windows  were 
large  and  high,  and  the  story  twelve  feet  in  the  clear. 

In  grading  the  Schools,  the  object  was  to  prepare  four 
buildings  for  Grammar  or  secondary  Schools,  each  to 
contain  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  Pupils ;  and  four  of  these  houses 
were,  at  comparatively  small  cost  and  with  little  diffi¬ 
culty,  adapted  to  the  purpose.  As  shown  in  the  opposite 
plan,  the  dividing  partition  was  taken  away,  the  ceiling 
being  supported  by  an  inserted  girder  standing  on  light 
east  iron  pillars,  and  a  study-room  (A)  of  nearly  forty 
feet  square  obtained ;  two  class-rooms,  (CC)  each  sixteen 
by  twenty  feet,  were  built  to  the  back  end  ;  and  an  entry 
or  vestibule,  (BB)  of  eight  by  ten  feet  was  partitioned  off 
inside  of  each  main  entrance  door.  The  Teacher’s  plat- 
o  o  o  o-o  form  and  desk  are  at  D. 

Each  of  these  buildings,  provided  with  neat  double  desks  and  single 
revolving  seats,  sufficient  apparatus  for  ventilation,  and  in  charge  of  a  Prin¬ 
cipal  and  two  Assistant  Teachers,  now  comfortably  accommodates  and  pro¬ 
vides  for  the  proper  instruction  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  Pupils. 
The  recitations  all  taken  place  in  the  class-rooms ;  two  of  the  Teachers 
being  thus  employed,  while  the  third  is,  alternately  with  them,  in  charge 
of  the  main  l  oom,  keeping  order  and  preparing  the  other  classes  for  their 
recitations,  which  occupy  half  an  hour  each, 

A  large  substantial  old  School  building,  of  two  or  three  stories,  is  some¬ 
times  met  in  the  larger  towns  of  the  State.  It  is  too  good  to  be  torn  down, 
yet  not  well  adapted  to  existing  modes  of  instruction.  Upon  close  examina¬ 
tion,  its  chief  defect  will  be  found  to  consist  in  the  want  of  class-rooms,  and 
the  main  rooms  are  not  generally  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  of  rooms  for 
this  purpose  being  taken  off  them.  These  class-rooms  must  necessarily  be 
added ;  and  how  to  do  this  most  properly  and  conveniently,  becomes  a 
question  of  importance. 

Such  buildings  are  generally  square,  or  very  slightly  longer  than  broad, 
and  are  often  divided  into  two  or  more  rooms  on  a  floor.  In  attaching 
class-rooms  to  them,  two  objects  are  to  be  kept  in  view :  one  is,  so  to  place 
them  as  neither  to  impede  light  nor  ventilation ;  the  other  is,  to  have  each 
class-room  directly  connected  with  the  School-room  to  which  it  belongs. 


C 


c 


A 


B  D 


B 


20 

■ 

20 

o 

o  j 

'TT 

o  O  o  O  o 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


245 


Both  these  ends  seem  to  be  effectually  attained  in  the  accompanying  plan 
of  the  Pottsville  Public  School  for  boys.  It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that 
this  is  not  an  old  building  adapted  to  present  wants ;  but  a  substantial  large 
and  commodious  edifice,  erected  a  few  years  ago  by  the  intelligent  Board  of 


60 


K5 


21 


o 

CO 


21 


CM 


Directors  of  that  town.  It  was  planned  by  Mr.  Isaac  Lykens  of  Pottsville, 
with  the  advice,  as  is  supposed,  of  Elias  Schneider,  Esq.,  a  Teacher  of  great 
experience. 

“  The  main  building  measures 
80  feet  by  60  feet.  The  recita¬ 
tion  rooms,  at  each  corner,  are 
all  equal  in  their  dimensions,  21 
feet  square.  The  building  con¬ 
tains  three  main  School-rooms, 
measuring  each  60  feet  by  40 
feet ;  and  two,  each  40  feet  by 
30  feet.  The  recitation  rooms 
number  six.  The  whole  number 
of  rcoms  is  eleven.  The  School- 
house  can  accommodate  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  Pupils.” 

The  lower  and  upper  stories 
are  alike,  except  that  one  is  di- 


21 


oo 

o 


09 


21 


c» 


vided  into  two,  and  the  other  into  three  School-rooms.  Two  of  the  corner 
or  wing-rooms,  not  used  for  class  purposes,  are  probably  occupied  as  clothes- 
rooms  or  for  apparatus. 

This  seems  to  be  an  admirable  plan  for  a  School-house.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  costly,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  wall  and  roof  required, 


2 1G 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


in  proportion  to  the  capacity  of  the  building;  and  it  only  suits  a  large  lot. 
It  is  here  inserted  as  suggesting  a  most  convenient  arrangement  of  class¬ 
rooms  with  reference  to  the  main  building.  Two  or  four,  accord  in  <>•  to  cir- 
cumstances,  of  such  corner  additions  to  a  large  School-house  destitute  of 
these  necessary  appendages,  will  add  greatly  to  its  efficiency,  without  loss 
of  light  or  space  in  any  of  the  School-rooms;  at  the  same  time  that  each 
class-room  door  will  open  directly  into  the  study-room  to  which  it  properly 
belongs. 

It  needs  only  be  added,  on  the  subject  of  enlarging  School-houses,  that 
not  a  dollar  for  this,  or  any  other  purpose,  should  be  expended  on  any  of 
the  large  old  School  buildings  alluded  to,  if  materially  deficient  in  height 
of  ceiling  or  any  other  indispensable  requisite  to  health.  It  is  better  to  be 
without  class-rooms  and  other  similar  facilities  for  a  few  years,  till  the  dis¬ 
trict  shall  be  able  to  pull  down  these  old  buildings  and  construct  proper 
elilices  in  their  stead,  than  to  entail  them  as  nuisances  on  the  place  tor 
generations  perhaps,  by  costly  additions. 

III.  DEFECTS  IN  INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT  AND  FURNITURE. 

The  arrangement  of  the  furniture  and  other  articles  in  the  School-room, 
belongs,  of  right  and  necessity,  to  the  Teacher.  He  will  not,  of  course, 
make  changes  for  mere  change  sake,  nor  injure  the  property  of  the  district 
solely  to  gratify  a  whim.  But  he  should  always  have  the  right  so  to  ar¬ 
range  all  within  the  School-room,  as,  in  his  experienced  judgment,  may  best 
promote  the  good  of  the  School  and  the  progress  of  the  Pupils.  In  many 
of  these  points,  experienced  and  able  Teachers  have  differed,  and  will  con¬ 
tinue  to  do  so;  and  therefore  few  directions  can  be  given,  beyond  saying 
that  they  must  necessarily  be  left  to  the  decision  of  him  who  is  to  be  pro¬ 
fessionally  responsible  for  the  result.  His  task  is  sufficiently  onerous  and 
his  responsibility  great,  without  having  the  details  of  the  School-room, 
which,  though  small  in  themselves,  may  be  to  him,  seriously  influential  in 
result,  unnecessarily  interfered  with  or  embarrassed. 

Hence,  the  position  of  his  own  seat  and  desk  and  those  of  the  Pupils,  and,  if 
movable,  that  of  the  stove  and  black-boards;  —  in  a  word,  the  control  and 
arrangement  of  every  thing,  not  permanently  fixed,  in  the  School-house, 
should  be  left  with  the  Teacher.  If  he  is  not  fit  to  have  this  degree  of 
power,  and  to  use  it  beneficially,  he  is  not  fit  to  be  in  the  School. 

As  to  the  kind  of  furniture  in  the  room,  if  it  be  not  healthful,  com¬ 
fortable,  and  conducive  to  study,  the  remedy  —  and  it  is  the  Teacher’s  duty 
as  well  as  right  to  demand  its  application  — is  to  have  it  removed,  and  the 
appropriate  kind  substituted.  If  he  succeed  in  this — and  success  will  be 
more  likely  to  follow  good-humored  and  respectful  request  than  ill-humor 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  OLD  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


217 


or  ridicule, —  he  will  confer  a  very  great  advantage  on  his  Pupils,  and 
largely  add  to  his  own  efficiency  as  well  as  comfort.  If  he  fail  in  his  first 
application  to  the  Board,  he  should  not  give  up  the  attempt,  but  endeavor 
to  arouse  a  local  feeling  amongst  the  parents  on  the  subject.  If  rightly 
excited  and  guided,  this  will,  in  most  cases,  sooner  or  later,  effect  the  ob¬ 
ject. 

But  should  all  practicable  means  fail  in  causing  the  School  to  be  proper¬ 
ly  furnished,  the  Teacher  still  has  it  in  his  power  to  improve,  to  the  utmost, 
the  most  defective  articles  by  his  own  efforts. 

Desks  ranged  along  the  walls,  so  that  the  Pupils  always  have  their  backs 
or  sides  toward  the  Teacher,  may  be  removed  and  placed  across  the  space 
in  front  of  him.  If  the  seats  and  desks  are  too  high,  he  can  borrow  a  saw 
and  cut  them  down  to  the  proper  and  comfortable  height ;  or,  if  a  female, 
she  may  induce  the  larger  Pupils  to  do  so.  The  stove  may  be  placed  in  the 
right  position.  Some  paper  may  be  pasted  on  the  wall  at  small  cost,  and 
sized  and  painted  for  a  black-board.  If  the  Directors  do  not  pay  for  it, 
probably  the  Pupils  will.  If  neither  do,  the  increased  facility  of  instruc¬ 
tion  will  remunerate  the  Teacher  for  the  outlay,  and  will  not  be  lost,  as  a 
matter  of  investment,  in  professional  reputation. 

In  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reasons,  a  broom  should  be  procured 
and  regularly  used;  and  a  Saturday  should  be  occasionally  devoted  to  the 
use  of  the  white- wash  brush. 

If  the  Teacher  own  maps,  pictures,  diagrams,  &c.,  they  should  be  hung  up 
in  the  School-room.  Such  things  should  not  be  withheld,  for  the  selfish 
reason  that  they  are  private  property.  It  should  be  always  borne  in  mind, 
that  Directors  do  not  refuse  to  provide  them  out  of  mere  stinginess  ;  but,  in 
most  cases,  because  they  have  really  not  become  aware  of  their  utility. 
Their  exhibition  and  use,  therefore,  by  the  Teacher,  will  be  the  most 
effectual  mode  of  imparting,  in  the  right  quarter,  a  knowledge  of  the  nature 
and  value  of  such  aids  to  instruction,  and  of  thus  procuring  them  from  the 
Board. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  improvement  of  School  furniture 
and  apparatus  is  the  Teacher’s  work ;  and  that  he  or  she  who  continues  to 
occupy  the  same  School  two  years  in  succession,  without  effecting  any  change 
in  this  department  of  School  affairs,  is  in  the  wrong  vocation. 


243 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


XI.  SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


OX  THE  SIZE,  ENCLOSURE  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS.# 


I.  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  AS  THEY  ARE. 

No  person  traveling  in  Pennsylvania  can  fail  to  notice  the  School- 
houses,  and  all  such  persons  will  hear  witness  to  the  fact,  that  a  very 
great  proportion  of  the  grounds  and  enclosures  about  them,  have  been  sadly 
neglected.  Sometimes,  the  School-house  stands  half  in  the  road  and  half 
in  the  adjacent  field ;  sometimes,  it  stands  altogether  in  the  field,  but  with 
the  front  on  the  direct  line  of  the  field  fence  and  in  the  place  of  a  few 
panels  of  it ;  and  again,  it  may  be  seen  at  the  angle  of  a  cross-road,  or  on 
the  narrow  strip  of  land  formed  where  two  roads  fork,  as  if  purposely  to 
accommodate  those  Pupils  who  may  be  less  interested  in  their  books  than 
in  what  passes  on  the  highway.  Not  unfrequently,  it  is  placed  on  some 
low,  damp,  marshy  spot;  on  some  exposed,  rocky  common ;  or  high  up  on  a 
bank  by  the  road-side,  unprotected  from  the  heated  rays  of  a  summer  sun 
or  the  fierce,  cold  winds  of  winter.  In  all  these  situations,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  no  well-arranged  School-grounds  coidd  exist.  The  Pupils  must  exer¬ 
cise,  if  they  exercise  at  all,  either  in  the  School-house  or  on  the  public 
road,  or  trespass  on  some  adjoining  property. 

Rut  there  are  many  School-houses  that  are  better  situated  than  those 
just  described.  Of  these,  some  are  located  in  the  borders  of  open  woods, 
which  furnish  grateful  shade,  and  room  for  the  Pupils  to  amuse  themselves 
during  play-time  ;  while  others  have  play-grounds  attached  to  them  which 
are  sometimes  enclosed,  and  more  rarely  planted  with  shade  trees.  No  one 
can  pass,  however,  the  large  majority  of  this  class,  without  noticing  the 
scanty  dimensions  of  their  School- grounds  and  the  evidences  of  neglect 
about  the  whole  premises.  When  the  grounds  are  merely  open  wood-lands, 
though  the  bounds  are  sufficiently  ample,  the  Pupils  have  but  the  same 
privilege  as  the  animals  that  roam  at  liberty  through  them ;  and  v'hen  en¬ 
closed,  the  enclosures  are  too  often  rough  and  constructed  without  taste, 
and  sometimes,  broken  down  or  otherwise  out  of  repair.  The  gate  cannot 
be  closed  or  is  entirely  off  its  hinges.  The  trees  about  the  grounds  have 
been  injured  or  destroyed,  or,  at  best,  gone  unprotected  and  untrimmed. 

*  This  chapter  was  prepared  at the  request  of  the  Editor,  by  J.  P.  Wickkrsham,  Esq.,  Superinten¬ 
dent  of  Lancaster  county. 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


249 


The  play-ground  near  the  door  and  the  walks  through  it  are  ungraded  and 
unpaved,  and  in  wet  weather  become  muddy ;  and,  in  some  parts,  the  ground 
is  covered  with  rubbish  or  overgrown  with  brushwood. 

In  the  preceding  remarks,  reference  has  been  had  only  to  rural  districts  ; 
but  village  School-grounds  bear  the  same  evidences  of  neglect.  Land  is 
more  valuable  in  a  village  than  in  the  country,  and,  in  comparison,  village 
School-grounds  are  generally  smaller,  and  we  very  frequently  meet  with 
School-houses,  wholly  without  them.  Often,  no  more  ground  belongs  to 
the  School  than  the  spot  upon  which  the  house  stands,  with  the  addition, 
sometimes  of  a  narrow  alley  by  which  to  reach  the  rear  of  the  building. 
Here  the  exercises  of  the  School  must  be  constantly  interrupted  by  the 
noise  of  the  street,  and  the  morals  and  manners  of  the  Pupils  contaminated 
by  its  vulgarity  and  vice. 

It  will  be  right  to  add  that  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  both  in  town  and 
country,  there  are  noble  exceptions  to  what  has  been  said  ;  but  the  general 
truth  of  the  statement  cannot  be  questioned,  and  this  condition  of  affairs 
calls  loudly  for  amendment. 

II.  ADVANTAGES  OF  WELL  ARRANGED  SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 

1.  They  promote  Health  :  Supposing  that  a  pleasant,  retired,  dry  situa¬ 
tion  has  been  chosen  for  the  School-house,  care  should  be  taken  to  attach 
sufficient  grounds  to  it,  to  permit  free,  exciting,  bodily  exercise ;  and  this 
will  be  promotive  of  health.  Physical  education,  much  as  it  has  been  ne¬ 
glected,  is  important.  The  organs  of  the  body  as  well  as  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  were  given  for  use,  and  to  make  either  effective  for  the  purposes  in¬ 
tended,  requires  training.  In  a  School,  periods  of  time  devoted  to  study 
should  always  alternate  with  intervals  devoted  to  physical  exercise ;  as 
study,  with  close  confinement,  cannot  be  otherwise  than  injurious  to  the 
young.  Students  of  sedentary  habits  unavoidably  lose  their  bodily  vigor, 
if  not  their  health.  Parents  are  frequently  called  to  lament  the  pale  and 
sickly  appearance  of  their  children,  when  they  attend  School  regularly ; 
and  hundreds  of  premature  deaths  have  taken  place  from  the  effects  of  over¬ 
tasked  brains  and  a  want  of  corporeal  exercise.  Says  Dr.  Warren  in  a  lec¬ 
ture  before  the  American  Institute  of  instruction :  “  Too  much  of  the  time 
of  the  better  educated  part  of  young  persons,  is,  in  my  humble  opinion,  de¬ 
voted  to  literary  pursuits  and  sedentary  occupations,  and  too  little  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  corporeal  powers  indispensable  to  make  the  former  practi¬ 
cably  useful.”  And  another  writer  on  the  same  subject  remarks,  that  “  the 
influence  of  the  physical  frame  upon  the  intellect,  morals  and  happiness  of 
a  human  being,  is  now  universally  admitted.  The  extent  of  this  influence 
will  be  thought  greater,  in  proportion  to  the  accuracy  with  which  the  sub¬ 
ject  is  examined.  Bodily  pain  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  amount  of 
32 


250 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


human  misery.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  importance  that  a  child 
should  grow  up  sound  and  healthy  in  body,  with  the  utmost  degree  of  mus¬ 
cular  strength  that  education  can  communicate.”  If  these  views  be  true, 
the  development  of  the  corporeal  organs  is  an  important  part  of  education  ; 
and  it  becomes  the  duty  ol  those  having  the  control  of  the  matter,  to  attach 
play-grounds,  suitable  for  various  athletic  games  and  gymnastic  exercises, 
to  every  School-house. 

2.  They  conduce  to  order  and  to  progress  in  study:  The  experience  of 
Teachers  has  proven  that  children  would  attend  School  more  regularly,  be 
more  attentive  to  their  studies,  learn  more  and  learn  it  better,  if  School- 
houses  were  pleasantly  situated  and  School-grounds  properly  arranged. 
The  character  of  surrounding  objects  strangely  affects  the  mind,  and  in¬ 
spires  a  disposition  and  power  to  accomplish  what  we  have  to  do,  or  damp¬ 
ens  the  energies  and  renders  the  spirits  gloomy.  Hence,  neglected  School 
grounds  and  dark,  dull,  uncomfortable  School-houses,  cannot  but  be  unpro- 
pitious  to  study. 

In  a  School-house  erected  upon  a  street  or  by  the  side  of  a  highway,  the 
exercises  of  a  School  must  suffer  great  interruption  from  noise,  and  consid¬ 
erable  disturbance  from  the  Pupils’  curiosity  to  see  every  passing  object. 
At  play,  in  such  cases  without  a  play-ground,  the  Pupils  are,  themselves,  in 
constant  danger  from  horses  and  passing  vehicles,  while  they  sometimes 
frighten  horses  and  annoy  travelers. 

In  such  situations  as  are  removed  from  the  street  or  highway,  but  which 
are  without  play-grounds,  the  Pupils  are  apt  to  trespass  upon  the  neigh¬ 
boring  fields,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  their  owners,  or  conduct  their 
games  in  the  house,  thus  damaging  the  furniture,  and  rendering  the  house 
unclean  and  a  scene  of  uproar  and  confusion. 

Play,  fun  and  frolic,  children  will  have.  It  is  natural,  and  we  have  no 
feelingin  common  with  that  sour  asceticism  that  would  condemn  this  dispo¬ 
sition,  or  chide  them  for  its  reasonable  indulgence.  But  it  must  be  guided, 
and  it  is  important  that  it  should  be  guided  aright.  If  School  children,  in 
hours  devoted  to  amusement  and  exercise,  be  allowed  to  run  wild  —  up  and 
down  the  highway  —  to  the  neighboring  creek  or  wood — through  the  vil¬ 
lage  —  everywhere  and  anywhere  their  fickle  fancies  may  prompt,  the 
Teacher  can  have  little  control  over  them.  They  may  quarrel,  use  vulgar 
or  profane  language,  act  improperly  towards  passers-by,  and  the  Teacher 
remain  in  complete  ignorance  of  the  fact.  He  cannot  even  have  a  general 
knowledge  of  their  conduct  while  engaged  in  play.  It  is  better  far  that  a 
play-ground,  large  and  convenient,  should  be  provided,  in  which  they  can 
amuse  themselves,  but  without  restraint,  under  the  Teacher’s  eye  and  with¬ 
in  his  hearing.  At  short  intervals  of  ££  intermission,”  too,  without  grounds 
for  play,  the  Pupils  must  either  sit  listlessly  about  the  School-house  or  be 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


251 


under  the  necessity  of  wandering  too  far  away  from  it ;  but  with  them, 
they  can  at  once  engage  in  exhilerating  sports,  set  the  blood  to  coursing 
swiftly  through  the  veins,  while  they  breathe  the  pure  air ;  and  when  the 
bell  calls  back  again,  their  tasks  will  be  resumed  with  freshened  spirit  and 
renewed  energy.  Good  play-grounds,  therefore,  not  only  promote  health, 
but  are  both  useful  and  convenient  in  the  business  of  education. 

3.  They  enable  the  Teacher  to  impart  important  lessons  in  manners  and 
morals  :  The  play-ground  affords  the  best  opportunity  to  the  Teacher  of 
becoming  more  fully  acquainted  with  the  disposition  of  his  Pupils,  of  form¬ 
ing  their  habits  and  imparting  many  useful  moral  lessons  to  them.  While 
engaged  in  play,  restraint  is  thrown  off,  and  real  character  displays  itself ; 
and  the  Teacher;  if  he  freely  mingles  among  his  Pupils,  as  he  should,  may 
gather  much  information  that  will  aid  him  in  his  School-room  duties  and 
prove  beneficial  to  the  School.  Unkind  words  will  not  be  spoken  nor  pro¬ 
fane  language  used  when  he  is  present ;  and  gentleness  of  manners  and 
propriety  of  conduct  will  thus  soon  grow  habitual.  Instances,  indeed,  are 
not  wanting,  in  which,  when  rebellious  natures  had  stirred  up  discontent 
among  the  Pupils,  and  appearances  indicated  the  subversion  of  the  Teach¬ 
er’s  authority,  he  was  able,  by  judicious  management  on  the  play-ground, 
to  arrest  the  rising  tumult  and  win  all  hearts  to  respect  and  love  him. 

4.  They  refine  the  feelings  and  cultivate  the  taste  :  We  have  around  us 
silent  Teachers.  The  towering  mountain,  the  setting  sun,  the  clouds  of 
Heaven  —  all  that  is  sublime  or  beautiful  in  nature  and  art  elevate  the 
mind  and  humanize  the  feelings.  On  the  other  hand,  disproportioned,  de¬ 
formed  or  neglected  objects,  excite  no  train  of  pleasurable  emotions.  The 
youthful  mind  is  peculiarly  susceptible  to  influences  of  this  character,  and, 
it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  the  unimproved  and  uninviting  grounds  about 
our  School  houses,  have  an  effect  to  deaden  the  sense  of  beauty  and  refine¬ 
ment. 

The  site  of  a  School-house  should  command  a  prospect  of  the  finest  sce¬ 
nery  in  the  neighborhood ;  the  School-grounds  should  be  neatly  enclosed 
and  planted  with  shrubbery  and  flowers ;  here  and  there  clumps  of  forest 
trees  should  furnish  shade ;  the  walks  should  be  paved  and  bordered  with 
flowers,  and  these  trees  and  these  flowers  should  be  under  the  special  care 
of  Teachers  and  Scholars ;  the  latter  being  taught  to  love  and  protect  them. 
If  all  this  were  realized,  who  can  doubt  that  the  noblest  feelings  of  the 
human  heart  might  here  be  trained  ;  and  that,  instead  of  the  ruthless  dispo¬ 
sition  to  destroy,  and  of  rough,  rude  conduct  and  careless  habits,  which  too 
often  characterize  the  Pupils  of  our  Common  Schools,  all  would  have  their 
feelings  refined  and  purified. 


252 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


III.  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 

1.  Size:  In  cities  and  towns,  it  is  generally  impossible  to  obtain  School 
grounds  of  proper  size,  in  convenient  localities,  without  great  expense,  and 
their  dimensions  must  therefore  depend  on  circumstances.  It  might  be  re¬ 
marked,  however,  that  it  would  be  better  for  pupils  to  walk  a  considerable 
distance,  than  that  the  limits  of  their  play-ground  should  be  so  narrow,  as 
not  to  admit  free  exercise  for  the  whole  School. 

YV  herever  land  can  be  had  at  reasonable  rates,  half  an  acre  is  the  least 
amount  that  would  well  subserve  the  purposes  of  an  ordinary  School,  and 
an  acre  would  be  none  too  much. 

The  following  plans  represent,  each,  the  first  named  quantity ;  but  their 
application  to  a  full  acre  will  be  a  matter  of  no  difficulty,  and  the  addition 
will  be  greatly  promotive  of  all  the  effects  intended  to  be  produced. 

A  different  use,  however,  may  ultimately  be  made  of  the  other  half  acre 
that  prudent  foresight  may  add  to  the  School-grounds,  and  which  will 
perhaps  be  the  best  that  could  possibly  be  made  of  it.  Teaching  is  now 
rapidly  assuming  the  rank  of  a  profession.  To  retain  it  such,  it  must  have 
its  known  permanent  locality.  The  Clergyman  resides  near  the  church. 
The  Lawyer  has  his  office  and  his  residence  hard  by  the  court-house.  The 
Physician  places  himself  in  the  town,  or  other  densest  portion  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  to  be  benefited  by  his  skill.  This  is  also  the  law  of  other  avocations, 
whether  mechanical  or  commercial.  Each  is  found  to  have  its  appropriate 
locality.  The  same  law  will  undoubtedly  be  found  to  govern  the  profes¬ 
sion  of  Teaching,  when  it  shall  be  fully  developed  and  shall  have  occupied 
its  proper  place,  as  well  as  its  true  rank,  in  the  land ;  and  therefore,  the 
Board  of  Directors  who  shall  earliest  provide  for,  and  soonest  effect  this 
manifest  destiny  of  the  Teacher,  will  be  found  most  surely  and  most  fully 
to  have  promoted  permanency  in  the  improvement  of  their  Schools. 

The  erection  of  a  Teacher’s  house,  on  a  portion  of  ground  sufficiently 
large  for  a  garden  and  the  other  purposes  of  a  family,  will  be  found  eco¬ 
nomical  as  well  as  beneficial  in  many  particulars.  A  fair  estimate  of  the 
rent  of  the  premises  will  reduce,  to  that  extent  annually,  the  compensation 
to  be  paid  for  his  services.  His  vicinity  to  the  School-house  will  enable 
him  to  guard  it  and  the  grounds  from  injury,  when  the  School  is  not  in 
session.  His  supervision  over  the  play  and  out-door  conduct  of  the  Pupils 
will  be  greatly  increased  for  good.  Those  frequent  changes  of  Teachers, 
which  now  so  much  retard  the  progress  of  Scholars,  will  be  materially  les¬ 
sened  in  number.  The  standing  and  influence  of  the  Teacher  will  be  pro¬ 
moted,  by  placing  him  in  and  before  the  community,  as  a  resident  official 
member  of  it,  laboring  for  its  benefit  in  the  most  important  department  of 
its  interests.  In  short,  from  whatever  point  it  may  be  contemplated,  the 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


253 


Teacher’s  house  assumes  an  importance,  in  the  building  up  of  the  Common 
School  system,  only  secondary  to  that  of  the  School-house. 

It  is  not  of  course,  intended  to  intimate,  that  this  addition  to  the  neces¬ 
sary  agencies  of  the  system  should  at  once  be  made,  nor  even  that  the 
means  of  any  district  should  be  over-strained  to  promote  it.  But  it  is  very 
certain,  that  the  prudent  forecast  which  shall  now  provide  for  its  ultimate 
accomplishment,  will  be  most  abundantly  justified  and  rewarded  in  the  end. 

2.  Shape:  The  most  dry  and  beautiful  grounds  are  those  which  slope 
towards  the  south  or  from  the  front  of  the  School-house,  which  should  al¬ 
ways  have  its  front  in  that  direction.  The  inclination  should  be  gentle, 
though  perhaps  for  purposes  of  play,  level  grounds  would  be  the  most  suit¬ 
able.  They  should  never  slope  in  the  opposite  direction,  if  it  can  be  avoid¬ 
ed,  as  a  northern  exposure  is  more  cold. 

GENERAL  PLAN. 

A.  School. house. 

BB.  Yards  for  shrubbery  and 

flowers. 

C.  Boys’  play-ground. 

B.  Girls’  play-ground. 

EE.  Privies. 

FF.  Paved  or  graveled  walks. 

GG.  Flower  beds. 

H.  Gate. 

II.  Outside  fence. 

K.  Dividing  fences. 

This  and  the  two  following 
plans  are  intended  to  represent 
grounds  of  half  an  acre  each ; 
in  parallelograms  of  one-third 
greater  in  length  than  in  breadth. 

The  shape  should  if 
possible  be  rectangular, 
the  length  extending 
north  and  south,  and 
bearing  the  proportion 
to  the  breadth  of  about 
three  to  two.  A  School 
lot  containing  six  thou¬ 
sand  square  feet,  might 
be  one  hundred  feet 
long  and  sixty  feet  wide; 
one  containing  half  an  acre,  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  by  one  hundred 
and  twenty-one ;  and  one  containing  an  acre,  two  hundred  and  forty-two 
by  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet. 


251 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


As  the  front  of  the  grounds  will  probably  border  on  a  highway  or  street, 
it  will  be  better,  in  order  to  escape  noise  and  secure  uninterrupted  atten¬ 
tion  to  study,  to  place  the  School-house  in  the  back  part  of  the  grounds,  on 
a  line  extending  lengthwise  through  the  centre  of  them.  A  paved  walk 
should  extend  from  the  gate- way  to  the  house,  terminating  at  the  paved 
portico  immediately  in  front  of  it.  A  close  and  high  board  fence  should 
extend  from  behind  the  house  to  the  centre  of  the  fence  at  the  back  end  of 
the  grounds.  Walks  might  also  extend  on  a  line  with  the  front  of  the 
house  to  both  sides.  The  two  spaces  thus  cut  off,  should  be  private,  in 
mixed  Schools,  one  for  each  sex ;  and  the  large  space  in  front  be  enjoyed 
by  both  in  common.  The  former  might  be  laid  out  in  grass-plats  with 
shrubbery  and  beds  for  flowers,  and  the  latter,  especially  in  towns  and 
cities,  should  be  paved  with  brick.  Brick  will  be  more  costly  than  sand 
or  gravel,  but  answer  a  better  purpose.  The  hardened  soil  would  answer 
well  except  in  damp  or  wet  weather.  There  should  be  shade  trees  in  all 
parts  of  the  grounds,  but  special  care  should  be  taken  in  this  respect  with 
the  private  spaces  previously  described.  In  grounds  like  these,  Pupils  de¬ 
siring  to  read  or  study 
could  do  so  without  in¬ 
terruption,  amidst  the 
shrubbery  and  shade  of 
those  portions  appro¬ 
priated  to  this  object ; 
and  others,  wishing  to 
watch  the  sportive  game 
enlist  among  the 


or 

players, could  enjoy  that 
opportunity,  unmolest¬ 
ing  and  unmolested. 

A.  School-house. 

BB.  Yard  for  shrubbery  and 
flowers. 

C.  Hoys’  play  ground. 

D.  Girls’  play-ground. 

EE.  Privies. 

FF.  Walks. 

GG.  Flower  plats. 

H.  Gate. 

II.  Outside  fences. 

K.  Dividing  fences. 

The  artist  in  this  and  the  pre¬ 
ceding  plan  has  omitted  to  rep¬ 
resent  the  extension  of  the  di¬ 
viding  fence  in  the  rear  of  the 
privy.  Without  this  the  design 
is  incomplete. 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


255 


The  first  of  these  plans  is  arranged  with  the  flower  garden  in  the  rear  of 
the  building,  and  the  play-ground  in  the  front  of  it ;  in  the  second  and 
third,  this  order  is  reversed ;  and  the  third  differs  from  the  other  two,  by 
having  the  lot  lengthwise  to  the  road  or  street.  Either  plan  can  be  selected 
according  to  the  taste  of  Directors  and  others  interested,  and  can  be  modified 
to  suit  the  size,  shape  and  slope  of  the  grounds. 

The  School-hpuses  in  all  the  plans  have  been  drawn  with  their  longest 
sides  towards  the  front.  This  is  not  a  good  arrangement.  Most  houses 
front  towards  the  south.  In  that  case,  if  the  narrowest  side  or  end  be 
placed  towards  the  front,  and  occupied  by  entries  and  clothes-rooms,  no 
light  will  be  admitted  into  the  School-room  from  the  south ;  and  if  the  op¬ 
posite  end  be  occupied  by  platform  and  black-board,  the  light  will  all  enter 
from  the  east  and  west.  By  this  arrangement,  also,  the  Teacher  will  have 
all  the  Pupils  before  him. 


A.  School-house.  BB.  Flower  yard.  C.  Boys’ play-ground.  D.  Girls’ play-ground.  EE.  Privies. 
FF.  Walks.  ■'  GG.  Flower  plats.  II.  Gate.  II.  Outside  fences.  K.  Dividing  fences. 

4.  The  Enclosure  :  The  enclosure  should  combine  the  qualities  of  neat¬ 
ness  and  substantiality.  A  wall  has  been  recommended  by  some,  and  it 
would  undoubtedly  possess  the  latter  quality.  It  could  not  be  easily  broken 
down ;  and,  if  sufficiently  high,  would  enable  the  children,  when  at  play, 
to  conduct  their  sports  unobserved ;  but  School  grounds  thus  enclosed  have 
too  much  the  appearance  of  those  belonging  to  a  prison  or  a  nunnery. 
They  have  a  heaviness  and  gloom  about  them,  which  are  neither  pleasant  to 
the  feelings  nor  congenial  to  the  taste.  Cast  iron  paling,  now  furnished  in 


256 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


such  a  variety  of  patterns,  it  is  presumed,  would  cost  less,  be  equally  sub¬ 
stantial,  and  certainly,  much  more  beautiful.  A  neat  pale  or  board  fence, 
strongly  made,  with  jmsts  sunk  deeply  into  the  ground,  would  however,  be 
cheaper  than  either,  and  might  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  an  ornament  to 
the  grounds.  The  paling  should  be  close  and  firmly  morticed  to  the  rails. 
The  fence  should  be  six  feet  high,  and  by  all  means  painted  white,  or  at 
least  white-washed.  If  the  entrance  to  the  yard  be  through  a  gate,  it 
should  be  hung  with  weights  so  as  to  close  of  itself  when  left  open  ;  but 
some  grounds  are  entered  by  short  flights  of  steps,  or  a  stile,  which  ascend 
to  a  landing  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  fence,  and  descend  in  the 
same  manner  on  the  other  side. 

5.  Shade  trees,  shrubbery  and  flowers  :  School-grounds  should  be  plen¬ 
tifully  supplied  with  shade  trees.  If  otherwise  suitable,  in  locating  a  School- 
house,  a  spot  should  be  chosen  upon  which  some  large  forest  trees  are  al¬ 
ready  standing,  or  the  border  of  a  wood  might  be  selected  which  could  be 
easily  thinned  out.  Generations  must  live  and  die  before  trees  newly 
planted  will  assume  that  stateliness  and  beauty  possessed  by  our  ancient 
forest  trees.  Who  can  gaze  upon  the  noble  trunk,  the  wide  spreading 
branches  and  the  deep,  dense  foliage  of  an  old  oak,  and  not  admire  its 
beauty  and  court  its  shade  1  If  possible,  some  such  should  be  embraced  in 
every  School-yard. 

But  if  the  grounds  are  to  be  planted  with  shade  trees,  and  it  be  desirable 
to  select  such  as  are  of  rapid  growth,  the  maple,  locust  and  poplar  are  per¬ 
haps  the  best ;  with  less  rapidity  of  growth,  but  of  equal  beauty,  the  oak, 
sycamore,  ash  and  beech  might  be  chosen  ;  and  of  evergreens,  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  name  the  pine,  cedar  and  hemlock.  It  will  be  observed  that 
all  those  named  are  indigenous  to  our  American  forests,  and  if  the  School- 
grounds  were  sufficiently  large,  they  might  be  planted  with  a  variety  of  all 
our  most  conspicuous  and  useful  trees  ;  that,  while  enjoying  their  shade,  the 
inquiring  Pupil  might  learn  their  names,  classes  and  uses.  The  same 
principle  should  be  applied  in  selecting  shrubbery  and  flowers ;  and  while 
their  cultivation  would  refine  their  taste,  the  Pupils  might  learn  useful, 
practical  lessons  in  the  study  of  botany.  Though  American  trees  and 
American  flowers  should  be  preferred,  on  account  of  their  real  merit  and  the 
facility  with  which  they  can  be  obtained,  no  unjust  discrimination  should 
prohibit  those  which  are  exotic ;  but  these  are  so  numerous  and  possess  so 
many  varied  attractions,  that  the  whole  subject  is  left  to  the  taste  of  Di¬ 
rectors,  Teachers,  Pupils  and  intelligent  citizens  of  the  district.  All  per¬ 
sons  feel  most  interested  in  what  they  have  themselves  planned  and  exe¬ 
cuted  ;  and  after  these  general  remarks,  it  is  thought  best,  for  this  reason, 
to  leave  in  the  same  hands,  also,  the  details  of  shaping  flower  beds  and  ar¬ 
ranging  shrubbery.  The  only  additional  remark  which  it  is  thought  neces- 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


257 


sary  to  make,  is  that  no  fruit  or  nut  trees  of  any  kind  should  be  admitted 
in  the  grounds ;  first,  because  the  fruit  would  be  seldom  suffered  to  ripen, 
and  green  fruit,  if  eaten,  is  injurious  to  health ;  and  second,  because  the 
trees  would  be  broken  and  destroyed  in  efforts  to  obtain  the  fruit. 

6.  Means  op  exercise  :  In  the  country  where  the  play- ground  is  large, 
and  suitable  for  the  use  of  bats,  balls,  hoops,  stilts,  jumping  sticks,  &c., 
which  the  Pupils  will  themselves  furnish  in  abundance,  it  will  render  any 
special  provision  in  this  respect  less  necessary.  But  in  case  the  grounds 
are  small,  and  in  towns  where  greater  variety  of  means  is  required,  addi¬ 
tional  arrangements  should  be  made  for  such  physical  exercise  as  may 
secure  proper  muscular  development. 

Amongst  boys,  running  and  leaping  are  favorite  pastimes  and  both  are 
conducive  to  health.  For  running,  no  other  preparation  of  the  ground  is 
needed  than  that  there  shall  be  space  enough,  and  that  the  surface  be  suffi¬ 
ciently  level  to  be  safe. 

Some  kinds  of  leap  require  preparation.  The  long  leap, 
along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  only  needs  a  level  space 
for  the  run  and  ground  not  too  hard  for  the  leap  itself. 
The  high  leap  may  be  made  a  useful  and  safe  exercise 
by  means  of  a  proper  leaping  cord  or  bar,  so  constructed  as 
to  be  elevated  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  youth’s 
activity  by  practice,  yet  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the 
injury  by  striking  the  feet  against  the  cord  or  bar. 

The  pole  leap  brings  the  muscles  of  the  hands  and 
arms  into  play  as  well  as  those  of  the  lower  limbs ; 
and  if  it  be  cautiously  practiced  and  gradually  increas¬ 
ed,  will  give  a  degree  of  confidence  and  activity  to  the 
performer,  which  may  be  valuable  to  him  in  the  dan¬ 
gerous  and  trying  positions  of  after  life. 

Vaulting  is  another  kind  of  exercise  which  strength¬ 
ens  the  muscles  of  both  upper  and  lower  limbs.  The 

power  to  swing  oneself  over  a 
fence  too  high  for  a  leap,  in 
times  of  danger  or  great  haste, 
is  desirable.  Rapid  and  graceful 
mounting  on  horseback  may 

also  be  thus  taught.  The  neces¬ 
sary  fixtures  cost  little  and  add  to  the  variety  of  the  play-ground. 

The  parallel  bars  are  admirable  contrivances  to  exercise  and  strengthen 
the  arms,  and  open  and  expand  the  chest.  If  of  different  heights  and 

33 


25$ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


sizes,  they  may  he  used  by  Pu¬ 
pils  of  all  ages.  They  possess 
the  advantage  of  being  perfect¬ 
ly  free  from  the  possibility  of 
accident  to  the  smallest  boy 
who  uses  them;  and  should 
therefore  be  among  the  first 
means  for  exercise  introduced 


upon  the  play-ground. 


The  horizontal  bar  is  for  lads  of  more  advanced  age,  and 
its  use,  beside  strengthening  the  hands  and  arms,  affords 
the  opportunity  of  placing  the  body  and  limbs  in  a  great 
variety  of  positions,  and  of  thus  strengthening  many  mus¬ 
cles  not  ordinarily  called  into  action. 

The  balancing  bar  is  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  elevation  from  the 

ground  in  proportion  to  the 
pupils’  confidence  in  him¬ 
self  and  skill  in  using  it. 

It  is  admirably  fitted  to  give 
strength  to  the  lower  limbs, 
steadiness  to  the  brain  and 
self-possession  to  the  mind. 

The  constant  practice  of  balancing  the  person  with  exact  reference  to  the 
centre  of  gravity,  must  also  have  a  beneficial  and 
graceful  effect  on  the  figure  and  general  deportment. 

Climbing  the  ladder,  the  rope  and  the  inclined 
board,  are  all  calculated  to  add  strength  to  the  limbs, 
activity  and  health  to  the  body,  and  variety  to  the 
exercises  of  the  play-ground.  They  can  be  provi¬ 
ded  for  at  slight  expense,  and  will  be  found,  in  com¬ 
mon  with  other  similar  arrangements,  to  increase 
love  for  School,  by  rendering  it  attractive. 

No  gymnastic  apparatus  combines  greater 
variety  of  healthful  and  pleasant  exercise  than 
the  rotary  or  flying  swing.  It  combines  run¬ 
ning,  leaping  and  climbing,  with  the  addition 
of  engaging  several  in  the  same  exercise  at  the 
same  time.  It  also  has  the  advantage,  which 
few  of  the  exercises  that  have  been  enumerated 
possess,  of  being  equally  adapted  to  females. 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


259 


Though  girls  neither  require  the  same  robust  exercise  nor  rough  sports, 
to  develop  their  frames  and  fit  them  for  the  duties  of  life,  as  boys,  yet  the 
system  of  education  which  omits,  or  slightly  pro¬ 
vides  for  their  physical  training,  is  most  radically 
defective.  In  addition  to  such  of  the  apparatus 
already  enumerated,  and  others  proper  for  both  sexes,  those  more  peculiarly 
adapted  to  their  wants  should  be  provided.  In  this  point  of  view,  light 
dumb  bells  are  best  calculated,  if  properly  used,  to  strengthen  the  arms  and 
expand  the  chest. 

The  long  back-board  is  also  well  calculated  to  expand  the  chest  and  give 
litheness  and  grace  to  all  the  movements  of  the  arms  and  bust.  The  va- 
rity  of  attitude  into  which  its  use  can  be 
made  to  throw  the  person,  cannot  but  be 
beneficial.  The  triangle  is  a  short  bar  of 
wood,  attached  by  a  light  rope  at  each  end,  to 
one  secured  at  some  point  of  considerable 
height.  This  is  so  arranged,  by  means  of  a 
pulley,  as  to  be  adaptable  to  the  size  of  the 
person  using  it,  and  is  a  simple  contrivance 
which  may  be  used  in  a  shed  or  room,  in  bad 
weather,  and  made  to  answer  most  of  the  uses  of  the  rotary  swing. 

In  suggesting  these  or  similar  arrangements  and  apparatus  for  the  amuse¬ 
ment  and  physical  training  of  youth  of  both  sexes,  of  course  it  is  not  de¬ 
signed  to  assert  that  all  or  even  any  of  them  are  indispensable  to  every 
School.  It  is  admitted  that  children,  in  good  health,  will  have  exercise 
of  some  kind,  and,  if  not  restrained,  will  generally  manage  to  secure  a  suffi¬ 
ciency  to  promote  growth  and  vigor  of  body ;  but  it  is  also  known  that,  if 
left  to  themselves,  they  will  generally  neglect  the  studies  proper  for  their 
intellectual  culture.  Hence  the  latter,  with  that  of  their  moral  nature,  be¬ 
comes  the  object  of  primary  importance  and  obligation.  But  then,  it  is  also 
believed  that  the  means  of  physical  exercise  may  also  be  vastly  improved  in 
nature  and  result,  and  at  the  same  time,  be  made  a  strong  attracting  influ¬ 
ence  in  favor  of  the  School  and  of  learning.  In  this  view  of  it,  physical 
training  rises  in  importance  to  a  point  only  secondary  to  that  of  the  cul¬ 
ture  of  the  heart  and  the  intellect ;  and  it  may,  therefore,  not  be  overlooked 
without  detriment  to  the  best  interests  of  the  child  and  of  society. 

If  it  do  not  suit  the  convenience  or  the  means  of  the  District,  to  expend 
money  to  provide  for  the  physical  training  of  its  youth,  by  means  of  proper 
gymnastic  arrangements,  much  may  be  effected  by  the  Teacher  and  the 
Pupils.  Timber  is  cheap,  and  there  will  be  found  in  every  School  of  the 
ordinary  size,  several  Scholars  of  sufficient  age,  mechanical  turn,  and,  if 


260 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


properly  influenced,  of  willingness  to  labor  for  the  common  good.  A  Sat¬ 
urday  or  two  devoted  to  this  purpose,  will  readily  produce  one  or  more  of 
the  simpler  kind  of  gymnastic  apparatus,  and  the  agreeable  and  beneficial 
effects  of  these  will  soon  introduce  others.  In  this  way  a  full  set  may  in 
time  be  obtained. 

As  to  where  the  exercises  shall  take  place  in  rainy  weather,  has  been  a 
question.  Some  have  proposed  to  fit  up  and  use  the  basement  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  ;  some  have  thought  that  the  School-house  should  be  constructed  with 
two  stories,  the  upper  one  of  which  might  be  used  for  play ;  and  others  have 
proposed  separate  covered  buildings  or  sheds.  Should  such  a  use  be  made 
of  the  second  story  of  the  School  building,  the  walls  of  the  first  story  must 
be  made  thick  and  firmly  bound  together.  They  need  not  extend,  however, 
higher  than  the  first  story,  as  the  second  should  be  open,  but  surrounded 
by  a  balustrade  and  pillars  to  support  the  roof.  The  floor  ought  to  be  laid 
with  thick  plank  and  deafened.  More  costly  arrangements  might  be 
described,  but  these  have  both  simplicity  and  cheapness  to  recommend 
them. 

Should  the  price  of  ground  in  particular  localities  render  it  advisable  to 
occupy  a  room  in  the  School  building,  for  gymnastic  or  calisthenic  exer¬ 
cises,  or  to  erect  a  building  purposely,  in  which  case  alone  such  expedients 
should  be  resorted  to  as  the  sole  means  of  exercise,  the  utmost  care  should  , 
be  taken  to  ensure  a  full  supply  of  pure  air.  No  consideration  ought  to  be 
permitted  to  interfere  with  this  indispensable  requisite. 

7.  Keeping  the  grounds  in  order  :  The  Directors  in  whom,  in  this  State, 
is  vested  the  exclusive  control  of  the  School  property  of  the  District,  should 
first  project  and  erect  School-buildings  and  arrange  School-grounds ;  but 
after  they  are  in  order,  they  should  be  intrusted  to  the  Teacher’s  care,  and 
he  should  be  made  responsible  for  their  abuse.  It  is  considered  his  duty  to 
keep  a  clean  and  tidy  School-room,  and  he  should  be  held  equally  respon¬ 
sible  for  the  condition  of  the  yard  and  its  enclosure.  It  is  true  that  the 
destructive  propensities  of  children,  uncontrolled,  often  lead  them  to  do  mis¬ 
chief  —  to  throw  down  the  fences  —  to  cut  and  bark  the  trees  —  to  cover 
doors  and  furniture  with  uncouth  and  obscene  figures;  but  it  is  emphatically 
the  Teacher’s  duty  to  prevent  these  acts,  and  no  better  proof  need  be  de¬ 
sired  of  a  Teacher’s  want  of  qualifications  than  his  inability  to  do  so.  This 
propensity  on  the  part  of  the  young,  to  cut,  scratch,  deface  and  destroy 
School  property  should  be  corrected.  They  do  not  thus  misuse  the  property 
of  their  parents,  and  it  is  but  mismanagement  at  School,  that  induces  them 
to  act  differently  there.  Teachers  may  create  such  a  spirit  among  their 
Pupils,  as  not  only  to  prevent  them  from  doing  harm  to  the  School  property, 
but  to  render  them  willing  and  ready  to  assist  in  protecting  it  from  the 
trespasses  of  others.  They  can  be  taught  to  love  neatness  and  order,  to 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 


261 


guard  affectionately  the  trees  and  flowers  about  the  School-grounds,  and  to 
take  pride  in  their  protection  and  preservation. 

It  would  be  a  great  convenience  to  have  a  spring  of  water  in  the  yard,  or 
a  pump,  from  which  cool,  fresh  water  could  be  brought  at  all  times ;  and 
this  should  be  of  such  easy  access  that  all  might  undergo  those  frequent 
ablutions  so  necessary  to  cleanliness,  and  upon  which  depend,  to  so  great  an 
extent,  the  good  looks  of  School  boys  and  School  girls. 

8.  Improving  existing  School-grounds:  These  grounds  can  be  leveled 
and  smoothed  and  good  inclosures  be  provided.  They  can  be  enlarged  by 
the  purchase  of  adjoining  grounds ;  and  in  view  of  the  probable  increased 
future  requirement  of  the  Schools  in  this  respect  and  the  increasing  value 
of  land,  good  economy  would  dictate  that  there  should  be  as  little  delay  as 
possible  in  so  doing.  .  Shade  trees  can  be  planted  in  all  School-grounds,  in 
which  they  do  not  at  present  exist.  It  will  take  them  years  to  grow,  and 
in  the  far  future  the  little  folks  who  shall  then  enjoy  the  comfort  of  their 
shade,  will  look  back  and  thank  those  to  whom  they  may  be  so  much  in¬ 
debted  . 


INDEX 


*  f 


. 


INDEX. 


Abacus  . . . ...» . . . . 

Accessibility,  . . . . . . . 

Access  to  Privy— should  not  be  refused  ........ 

Air — Constitution  and  operation  of.  . . . 

Full  supply  of,  necessary . . .  ,  ,  . . . 

And  food- — pure,  necessary  to  health.  . . . . . 

Children  incapable  of  selecting. 

And  light — causes  of  insufficiency  of . 

Chamber  to  be  large.. . .  . . 

Pumps  . . . . . . . . 

Apparatus . . . . 

Importance  of.  . . .  . 

Different  classes  of.  . . . . 

First  class,  for  District  School.  . . 

Clock.. .........  ... ...  . ................ 

Bell . . . . 

Boll.. . . 

Thermometer.. . . .  . 

For  the  little  ones.. . . . ....... .  ... . . 

Slate. » , , 


Cards  and  pictures.  . . .  .  .  ..... 

Building  blocks.,  ...... . 

Object  lessons. . . , ..... 

Black-board.  ..... .  , . . . 

Pointers  or  wands..  . . ... .  . . 

Cardinal  points.  . . .  «  • 

Globes . . 

Hemisphere  globes.  . . 

Maps. . . . . . . 

Tellurion  . . . .  ... .......... 

Musical  Multiplication  table. 
Abacus  or  numeral  frame.  . . 
Geometrical  solids. ......... 

Cube  root  block. . . . ..... . . . . . 

Mechanical  powers. . . 

Second  class  •  •-#«>•-•-•  *-*  *  •"#"«  «  •  «  •  « « 
Electricity  •.« » « «-#•<«  %  %  %  < 

34 


Page 

218 

22 

148 

172 

173 
171 
171 

174 
168 
223 
2U9 
209 
211 
212 
212 
212 
212 
212 
213 

213 

214 
214 

214 

215 

215 

216 
216 
216 
217 

217 
218' 

218 
219 
219 

219 

220 
220 


IiSDiiX- 


266 


Page 

Apparatus . . . . . . . .  209 

Second  class . 220 

Magic  lantern . . . 221 

Dioptric  lantern. . . . . . , . . , .  222 

Orrery . 223 

Telescope . 223 

Air  pumps .  223 

Force  pumps . . . 225 

Hydrostatic  bellows. . . . .  225 

Screw  pump . 225 

Eye  instruments . , . . .  . . .  226 

Spectacle  instrument . . . .  ,  . .... . . .  226 

Choice  of . 226 

Case  or  closet  for . . . . . . . . . , , .  227 

Use  and  care  of. . . . . . . . .  . . . .  228 

Architectural  Details  .. . . 14-9 

Artificial  ventilation.  . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . , . . . 181-184 


Back-board  .......  . . . . . .  . .  259 

Bars — Parallel . 257 

Horizontal . 258 

Balancing . 258 

Beautiful — study  of — proper . 24-251 

Bell — Advantages  of . . . . . . . . .  63 

In  School.  . . . . . . . . .  212 

Black-board . 203-215 

Black-board — quantity  of.  . . 30 

Boys — exercise  for . . . . . .  , . . .  257 

Brooms  and  brushes . . . . . . . . .  191 

Buckets....,..,. . 193 

Building-blocks . 214 

Calisthenic  Apparatus  . . . . . .  . . ..... .  259 

Cardinal  points . 216 

Cards  . 214 

Care  of  apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .  228 

Carpet . 268 

Case  for  apparatus  . . . . .  . ...» . . . .  . . .  227 

Ceiling — Height  of.  . . . . .  . . . .  175 

Opening  in . 179 

Cellar  to  School-house.  . . . . .  . . . . . . .  30 

Centralness . . . . . . . . .  ....  21 

Charlotta  street  School,  Philadelphia.  . . . . . . . . .  103 

Cheaper  houses  not  included — why.  . . . . . . .  158 

Choice  of  apparatus . . . .  ,  . . . . . . . .  226 

Cities — construction  of  Schools  for.  . .  .......  .... .......  . . . . . .  90 

Class-room  furniture............. . 206 

Class-space . . . . .  ,  ....................  200 


INDEX.  2G7 

Page 

Clock; . . 212 

Clothes-rooms  . . . - .  30 

Hooks . . , . . .  192 

Completion — time  of — to  be  in  contract . . .  157 

Construction  of  School-houses . . . . . . . . . . .  29 

General  principles  of,  applicable  to  all  Schools . . .  .  29 

Ungraded  Rural  Schools,  Class  I,  one  story . 31 

No.  1 — 23  by  34  feet;  1  Teacher,  48  Pupils .  31 

“  2—25  by  30  “  1  “  48  “  35 

“  3—23  by  34  “  1  “  48  “  37 

“  4—23  by  34  «  1  «  46  “  39 

“  5—30  by  40  “  2  «  70  “  42 

“  6 — 26  by  40  “  2  “  64  “  44 

“  7—30  by  40  “  2  “  70  “  46 

Graded  Rural  Schools,  Class  II,  one  story .  49 

No.  1 — 30  by  50  feet ;  2  Teachers,  72  Pupils . . .  50 

“  2— 30  by  40  «  3  «  112  “  55 

«  3—32  by  54  “  3  “  128  “  58 

«  4—32  by  54  “  3  “  128  “  60 

“  5—32  by  54  “  3  “  128  «  63 

“  6 — 28  by  80  “  2  or  4  Teachers,  96  or  128  Pupils . .  142 

Schools  for  small  towns,  Class  III . . .  67 

No.  1 — 2  stories;  34  by  50  feet;  4  Teachers,  200  Pupils .  69 

“  2—2  “  27  by  35  “  2  “  100  “  74 

“  3—2  “  27  by  36  “  4  “  144  “  78 

“  4 — 2  “  28  by  40  “  4  “  144  “  79 

“  5—2  «  44  by  44  “  6  “  288  “  82 

«  6—2  “  48  by  50  «  4  “  208  “  86 

“  7—2  “  27  by  44  “  4  «  144  «  89 

Schools  for  cities,  Class  IV . . .  90 

No.  1 — 2  stories;  40  by  50  feet;  5  Teachers,  252  Pupils .  92 

“  2 — 2  “  37  by  47  “  4  or  5  Teachers,  176  to  240  Pupils..  97 

“  3 — 2  “  36  by  55  “  8  Teachers,  360  Pupils . 101 

“  4—2  «  47  by  50  “  8  “  432  “  103 

“  5—2  “  55  by  76  “  6  “  360  “  .  . . Ill 

“  6—3  «  60  by  80  «  12  «  892  “  114 

«  7—3  «  74  by  84  «  11  “  700  “  121 

«  8—3  «  47  by  92  “  15  «  750  “  128 

«  9—3  «  55  by  82  “  15  “  816  “  130 

“  10—3  <£  75  bylOO  “  16  “  600  “  .  135 

Effect  of,  on  light  and  air . . . .  175 

Contract  for  building,  how  made . . . . .  '30 

Convenience . . . . . . . .  26 

Course  of  study,  not  too  high . . .  19 

Crayons — how  to  make . . . . .  203 

Cube-root  block . . . . . . .  219 

Currents  of  air . . . . .  163 


25$ 


INDEX. 


Page 

Deafening . •.  105-109 

Defects  in  construction . . . ,. ..  ...  . .  237 

position . . . 232-236 

size . 238 

Desks . 188-193 

Details,  Architectural . 149 

Dinner  closet . 192 

Dioptric  lantern . 222 

Directors’  office . 86 

Doors,  to  be  wide . . . . .  30 

Dumbbells... . 259 

Electrical  machine . 220 

Encased  stove . ............  163-167 

Plate  of . 164 

Enclosure  of  School  lot . . . . . . .  255 

Enlargement  of  old  houses . 241 

Entries .  30 

To  be  wide . . .. . . .  68 

Evaporation,  vessel  for . 168 

Exercise,  means  of . . . 257 

Explanatory  remarks . 157 

Eye  instruments . .  226 

Fences — only  division — included  in  estimates . . . .  157 

Fire  irons . . . ,  . . .  191 

Fitzwater  street  School,  Philadelphia . . . . .  103 

Flowers . 256 

Flue — Ventilating . 179 

Operation  of .  179 

Management  of . .  . . . .....  . . . . .  180 

Force  pumps . 225 

Form  of  school  room..  . . .  . .  30 

Frontispiece,  plan  of.  . . . 142 

Furnace — Advantages  of . .  166,  167 

Eequisites  of. . 166-169 

Cost  of.  . . . . . . . . . . . .  167 

Selection  of . lo8 

furniture.  .  . . . ...... . . . .  188 

Seats  and  desks,  proper  kinds  of . . .  188 

Why  they  should  he  comfortable.  . . . . .  .  ,. .  ...  .  .  188 

Cheapest  not  most  economical . . .  . . . .  189 

Teacher  to  be  consulted  as  to.  . . . . .  .  . . .  189 

Entry  and  clothes-room  furniture  . . ... .  . . . . . . .  190 

Scraper . 190 

Mat . 190 

Wash  basin  . . . . . . . .  191 

Buckets  . . 191 


INDEX. 


269 

Page 

Furniture . .  . ..... . • . . .  188 

Entry  and  clothes-room  furniture  . . . . .  190 

Brooms  and  brushes . . .  191 

Umbrella  stand . .  191 

Fire  irons .  191 

Clothes-hooks . .  192 

Dinner  closet .  192 

Mode  of  obtaining  these  articles . ......  192 

Mode  of  using  them . . . .  192 

Study  room  furniture . : . . . .  193 

Seats  and  desks . . . .  193 

Every  pupil  to  have  a  desk . . .  193 

Seat  and  desk  to  be  adapted  to  pupil. . . . . .  194 

Pupil  to  have  ready  access  to . .  194 

Primary  seats  and  desks . . . .  194 

Grammar  school  desks . . .  195 

High  school  desks . .  196 

Lancaster  city  school  desks . . .  197 

Kelative  sizes  of  seats  and  desks  . . . . . .  197 

Ink  stands. .  198 

Arrangement  of  seats  and  desks . . . . . .  198 

Diagonal  arrangement  of. . . . . . .  199 

Class — space . 200 

Platform . . . . . . . ,  200 

Teacher’s  desk . . . .  201 

Teacher’s  chair . ... . . .  202 

Black-board .  203 

Different  kinds  of . 204 

Chalk  and  crayons . 205 

How  to  make  crayons . 205 

Black-board  wiper  and  brush  . .  206 

Class-room  furniture . 206 

Grammar  class-room . 206 

Mathematical  class-room .  206 

Teacher’s  platform  and  desk . . . . ,. . . . .  207 

Map  rails.  .  .  . . 207 

Carpet . .- . . . .  208 

Furniture,  change  the  arrangement  of,  why.  . . .  .  .  J5g 

Furniture,  improvement  of .  246 

Furniture  not  included  in  estimate.  . . . . . .  157 

Geometrical  solids.  . . . . ., . . . . . .  219 

Girls,  exercise  for  . . . . . . . . . .  . . . .  259 

Glass  partitions . ., .  71_  85 

Gow,  A.  M.,  chapter  by . 209 

Graded  Rural  Schools.  . . . . 49 

Grading  Schools .  9 

Importance  of . 9 

Lawfulness  of . 9 


270 


INDEX. 


Grading  schools.  . . . . . . . . . .  9 

Reasons  for . . . . . . . .  jo 

It  divides  labor . .  10 

Is  the  most  economical . .  .  n 

Increases  teaching  force .  11 

Facilitates  government . 12 

Promotes  equality  . , ,  12 

Renders  the  system  popular . . . . .  13 

Obligatory,  where  practicable . . .  14. 

Nature  of  gradation . , ,  15 

Separate  system . . . . . ,  . .  15 

Union  system .  . . 15 

Mixed  systems .  16 

Number  of  grades . , . . .  16 

Results  of  grading . 17 

Mode  of  proceeding . 18 

Course  of  study  not  too  high.  . . . .  19 

Grammar  School — what . . . . . .  17 

Seats  and  desks.  . . . . . . . 195 

Grounds,  school . . 248 

As  they  are . . . . . . . .  248 

Advantages  of  well  arranged . . . . . .  249 

Promote  health . 249 

Promote  order  and  study . . . .  .„  ,,,,,,  250 

Improve  manners  and  morals .  251 

Improve  the  feelings  and  taste . . .  251 

Improvement  of . 252 

Size . . . . . . . . . .  252 

Shape .  252 

Enclosure . 255 

Trees,  shrubbery  and  flowers.. . 256 

Means  of  exercise . 257 

Exercise  in  bad  weather . 260 

Keeping  grounds  in  order . 260 

Improvement  of  existing  grounds . . 261 

Ground  plans,  scales  of . . . . . . .  156 


In  the  ground  plan  on  page  244,  a  door-way  should  be  shown  from  each 
vestibule  (B)  into  the  main  room;  and  there  should  be  no  opening 
between  the  vestibules  opposite  D,  leading  from  the  portico  into  the 


main  room.. , .  .  ... .  . . . . . .  .  .  . . . .  244 

Gymnastic  apparatus,  importance  of . 249,259 

Mode  of  procuring . .  . . . .  .  .  .  259 

Hancock  School,  Philadelphia.  . . . .  128 

Healthfulness . . .  23 

Health  promoted  by  proper  play  and  exercise . . .  .  249 

Heating  school-houses . 159 

True  object  of . . . 159 

Proper  temperature  of. . . . . . . .  159 


INDEX. 


271 


Dags 

Heating  school-houses. . . . , . . . . . . . .  159 

Temperature  should  be  equal . . . . . . .  159 

should  be  maintained .  160 

Thermometer  necessary . 160 

Heating  and  ventilation  not  inseparable . 160 

Can  be  simplified .  160 

Modes  of  heating  small  Schools . . . . .  161 

By  stove  in  the  room . . .  161 

Kind  of  stove. .  . . . . . . . .  162 

Position  of  stove . .  . . . . .  162 

Common  screen. . . 163 

Currents  of  air  towards  stove . . .  163 

Encased  stove . 163 

Plate  of . . . ... . .  164> 

Explanation  of. . 164 

Advantages  of. . 164 

Ventilating  flue  requisite . 165 

Position  of........ . 165 

Cost  of. . .  165 

By  furnace . .  165 

Advantages  of . . ...  . . .  166 

Plate  of . 166 

Requisites  of. . 166 

Cost  of . 167 

Modes  of  heating  larger  houses. . . . .  167 

Common  stove . 167 

Encased  stove .  167 

Plate  of. . 167 

Furnace . . ... . 167 

Situation  of  furnace . ... . . .  168 

Air  chamber  to  be  large . . . - . . .  168 

to  be  high . 168 

Purest  air  to  be  introduced.. . ......  168 

Grate  to  air  shaft . 168 

Heater  to  be  perfectly  tight . 168 

Vessel  for  evaporation . 168 

Teacher  to  have  charge  of  furnace . . . . .  169 

Furnace  to  be  repaired  in  summer . 169 

General  principles  to  be  kept  in  view . . . .  169 

Height  of  ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . .  30 

High  school — what . 17 

Seats  and  desks . . . .. .  196 

Philadelphia . . . 135 

Hydrostatic  bellows . 225 

Importance  of  grading . . . . . . .  10-14 

Of  proper  location . . . . . . .  20 

Improvement  of  old  school-houses . . .  .  230 

Of  furniture.. . . . . .  . . . . .  246 


INDEX. 


27  2 


Inclined  board 
Ink  stands . 


Paos 

258 

198 


Ladder . . . . . . . . . .  258 

Lancaster  city  school-houses . 244 

Seats  and  desks . . . . . .  t  197 

Street  school-house,  Philadelphia.  *, . .  103 

Large  schools — Lighting  of .  182 

Heating  of . . . 167 

Ventilation  of .  184 

Lawfulness  of  grading  ...  . . . . . .  9 

Leap — High . 257 

Pole . 257 

Lecture  hall . . . . . . .  122 

Lewisburg  School. ....  . .  86 

Lighting  and  ventilation.  .  .  .  170 

Number  of  deaths  under  twenty  years  of  age. .  .  . . . . .  170 

Supposed  cause  of  this..  . . .  170 

Probable  cause  of  it .  170 

Sound  food  and  pure  air  necessary  to  health .  171 

Children  incapable  of  selecting  either . 171 

Duty  of  directors  and  teachers  as  to  pure  air . .... .  171 

Constitution  and  operation  of  pure  air . . . .  . .  172 

Full  supply  necessary.  . . . . .  173 

Dependence  of  artificial  ventilation  on  heat. .  . . . . .  173 

Causes  of  insufficiency  of  air  and  light . . .  174 

Natural  means  of  lighting  and  ventilating  rural  Schools .  174 

Proper  location.  . . . . . .  174 

construction.. . 175 

height  of  ceiling .  175 

of  windows  . . . . 176 

arrangement  of  windows . , . . . . .  176 

of  blinds  or  curtains.  . . . . . .  .  177 

position  of  Pupils  as  to  light . . . .  .  177 

window  as  a  ventilator . . . .  178 

opening  in  the  ceiling .  179 

ventilating  flue . . . . . . . . .  179 

operation  of . „ . .  179 

management  of .... .  . . . . . . .  180 

stove  arranged  to  aid  ventilation .  180 

plate  of . 181 

opening  to  admit  fresh  air  indispensable...... . .  181 

Artificial  agencies . 181 

Lighting  large  Schools . 182 

Windows  often  too  numerous.  . .  . .  182 

and  too  small . . . .  .  .  .  . . . . . . .  .  . .  183  . 

High  windows  desirable . . .  183 

Position  of  windows . .  .  . .  ... . . . . . .  183 

Shutters  and  blinds  requisite . . . .  184 


INDEX. 


273 


Page 

Lighting  large  Schools..  . . . . . . .  182 

Should  be  in  charge  of  Teacher . . .  184 

Ventilation  of  large  schools . . . . .  184 

artificial  means  applicable .  184 

plates  of  flues,  &c.,  for . 185,  186 

heat  necessary  in  mild  weather,  in  aid  of .  186 

size  of  ventiducts. . .  . . . .  187 

General  principles  relating  to  light  and  air . . .  187 

Light — General  principles  applicable  to . . . . .  187 

Position  of  Pupils  as  to .  30 

Little  ones — apparatus  for . . .  213 

Location  of  Schools.  . . . . . . . .  20 

Importance  of  subject.  . . . . . .  20 

.Requisites  of — in  Country  Schools. . . .  21 

Centralness.  . . . . • . . . . . .  21 

Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . .  22 

Size  of  lot . 22 

Healthfulness  . . . . 23 

Pleasantness.  . . . . 24 

Retirement . .  . . ..... .  . . . .  ....  25 

Convenience . . . . . .  . .  26 

Requisites  of,  in  rural  graded  Schools . . . .  . .  26 

town  Schools . 27 

Directors  should  have  power  to  take  land  for . . .  28 

Location — effect  of,  on  light  and  air . . . . .  174 

Location  of  Privy . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . .  145 

Lock  to  Privy . . . .. . . ... . .  . . . .  148 

Magic  Lantern . .  . . . .  221 

Maps _ _  .  . _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _  .  217 

Map-rails . 207 

Mats . . . . . . . . . . . .  .  190 

Material  of  School-houses . . . .  . . . . . . . .  .  30 

Mechanical  powers . ... . . . .  219 

Mild  weather,  heat  necessary  for  ventilation  in . . . .  186 

Mode  of  grading  . . . . .  18-67 

Mortality  of  young  persons . .  . . . .  ,. . . .  170 

Multiplication  table — musical . . . .  . ..... .  218 


Natural  means  of  lighting  and  ventilation . . .  174 

Nature  of  grading . . . . .  15 

Necessity  of  grading .  18 

North-east  Grammar  School,  Philadelphia . . . . . ...  130 

Number  of  grades. . . . . . . . .  . . . .  16 

Numeral  frame . . .  . . . . . .  218 

Object  Lessons . . . . .  . . .... . .  ... . ... .  214 

Old  School-houses,  improvement  of . . . . .  230 

35 


274 


INDEX. 


Page 

Old  School-houses,  improvement  of . . . . . . . . . . .  -  230 

Why  they  should  be  improved . . . , .  230 

When  they  should  be  improved . . .  . . . .  231 

How  they  should  be  improved . . .  232 

Defects  in  position  of  rural  Schools . . . . .  . .  232 

Want  of  healthfulness . . . . .  232 

Want  of  size . . . . .  234? 

Want  of  retirement . . . . . .  235 

Want  of  accessibility...  . . . .  236 

Defects  in  position  of  town  Schools . ..  .  , .. .  236 

W ant  of  healthfulness .  236 

Want  of  size . 236 

Want  of  retirement . .. .  236 

Want  of  accessibility...  .  . .  237 

Defects  in  construction  of  old  School-houses  .  . .  .  . . .  237 

Deficiency  in  size  of  house . . . . .  2°8 

Deficiency  in  height . . . . . . .  239 

Deficiency  in  windows . . . . . .  240 

Deficiency  in  special  means  for  ventilation .  241 

Houses  should  not  be  made  wholly  air-tight . . .  241 

Enlargement  of  old  School-houses . . . . .  241 

When  proper . 241-246 

How  done . 241 

Of  School-houses  in  Lancaster . . . . . . .  244 

Pottsville  School  plan . . . . . . . .  215 

Improvement  of  School  furniture . . . . .  . .  . .  246 

Teacher  should  control  it . . . . .  246 

How  it  may  be  effected  by; . . .  .  . . .  247 

Teacher’s  duty  in  reference  to . . . . .  247 

One  story  buildings,  advantages  of. . . . .  .... .  .....  ......  50 

Opening  to  admit  fresh  air  indispensable . . . .  181 

Opening  in  ceiling . .  . . . .  179 

Orrery . 223 

Outside  passages  in  School-rooms  proper . .  . . . . . . .  83 


Pictures . . . . 

Plan  and  form  of  Privy . 

Platform . . . ......... 

Pleasantness . .  . 

Pointers . . . . . 

Portico . . . 

Position  of  building,  the  most  proper,. 

Pottsville  public  School . 

Powers,  mechanical . . 

Power  to  take  ground  for  Schools..  .  . 

Primary  School,  what..  . . 

Seats  and  desks . 

Principles  applicable  to  all  Schools.  .  . 


214 

147 

...  30-200 
24 

215 

.... .  36-37 

69-232-236 
245 
219 

...  28-235 
17 

...  194 

29 


INDEX. 


275 


Paob 

Privy — Importance  of  subject .  1+5 

Proper  location  of . . .  1+6 

Neatness  of  appearance . . .  1+6 

Proper  plan  and  form  of .  1+7 

Ventilation  of .  1+7 

Cleanliness  of . 147 

Well,  proper  shape  of . . .  147 

Should  be  locked .  148 

Urinal  to .  148 

Pupils  should  have  free  access  to .  148 

Proportion  of  Pupils  of  each  grade . . .  67 

Purest  air  to  be  introduced . . .  168 

Pump  or  well.  .........  . . . .  261 

.Reasons  for  grading . . . . .  10 

Reference  always  to  numbers  of  same  class . ... . . . . . .  157 

Requisites  of  proper  location . . . .  . . . . . .  21-26-27 

Results  of  grading . . . . . * .  17 

Retirement . 25 

Roll . 212 

Rope  climbing . ... . . .  258 

Rural  graded  Schools,  location  of  . . . . ! . . . .......  . ... . ..... 26 

Schools,  construction  of.. . ,  29 

Scales  of  ground  plans . . . . . .  156 

Schneider,  Elias,  Pottsviile  School . . .  245 

Scraper . ... . . . . . . , .  190 

Screen,  common . 163 

Screw  pump . 225 

Seats . . .  ........  . . . .  188-193 

Separate  School  gradation . . .  15 

Shade  trees . . . . , . .  256 

Shape  of  School  lot . . . .... . . . . .  253 

Shrubbery . . . . . . . . .  256 

Size  of  lot . .  . . . . . . .  . . .  * . .  22-252 

of  School-room . 29 

of  seats  and  desks . . . . . . . . . .  197 

of  ventiducts . „ . . .  187 

Slate . 21 

Every  Pupil  to  have  a . . .  193 

Small  towns,  Schools  for . . . 67 

Spectacle  instrument .......  _ . . . . . . . 226 

Stairways,  to  be  wide . . .  . . .  68 

when  to  be  double . . . . .  68-90 

Steam  engine,  plate  of. . 211 

Stove . . . .  . . . . . . . . . 161-167 

Kind  of . .... . .  162 

Position  of . . . . . . . . . . . .  ,.,H. .  162 


276 


INDEX. 


Stove . 161-167 

Encased. . . . .  , .  |63 

To  aid  ventilation  . . . .  180 

Summer,  the  time  to  repair  furnace .  169 

Supervision  of  Pupils  at  play .  25-250-251 

Swing,  rotary .  258 

Teacher  to  improve  furniture . 247 

Duty  of,  as  to  grounds . . . . . .  260 

To  have  charge  of  furnace .  169 

Telescope . . . . , . . . . . .  223 

Tellurion . 217 

Temperature — Proper . . . . 159 

Equal . 159 

Continued . 159 

Thermometer,  necessary.  . . 160-212 

Town  Schools — location  of . 27 

Towns — construction  of  Schools  for  small.  . . . . . .  67 

Trees . . . . . 256-26 1 

Triangle .  259 

Umbrella  stand........ . 191 

Ungraded  Schools — construction  of . 41 

Union  School — what . . . . .  .  . . . .  15 

Urinal  to  Privy . . . . . . . . . . . .  148 

Vaulting . . . . . . . . . . . . .  257 

Ventiducts — size  of . 187 

Ventilation  and  heating — not  inseparable  . . . . . . . .  160 

Ventilation — general  principles  applicable  to.  . . . . . . .  187 

Ventilating  flues — plates  of . . .  . . . . . . . . 185-186 

Ventilation  of  Privy . . . . . . . . . .  147 

Wash-basin . 191 

Washington  borough  School . . .  .  . . . .  .  . . .  121 

Wickersham,  J.  P.,  chapter  by.. .. . . . . . .  248 

Well,  Privy — proper  shape  of . . . . . . .  147 

Williamsport  School . 114 

Woodcock’s  arrangement . 199 

Windows — Height  of  ..... .  . . . . . 30-176 

Arrangement  of.  . . . 176 

Blinds  or  curtains  to  . . . . . . . .  .  177—184 

Position  as  to  Pupils  ,  ,  . . . . . . .  177 

As  ventilators . 178 

Too  numerous . . , .....  . .  .  . .  182 

Often  too  small . . 183 

High  desirable .  . . 183 

Wiper  and  brush  for  black-board.  . . ,  . . .  .  . . ... ............  206 


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